Molinos Valle Del Cibao v. Oscar R. Lama ( 2011 )


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  •                                                                 [PUBLISH]
    IN THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
    FOR THE ELEVENTH CIRCUIT           FILED
    ________________________ U.S. COURT  OF APPEALS
    ELEVENTH CIRCUIT
    FEB 24, 2011
    No. 09-11153                  JOHN LEY
    ________________________             CLERK
    D. C. Docket No. 07-23066-CV-UU
    MOLINOS VALLE DEL CIBAO, C. por A.,
    a corporation of the Dominican Republic,
    Plaintiff-Appellant,
    versus
    OSCAR R. LAMA,
    CARLOS LAMA-SELIMAN,
    OSCAR LAMA-SELIMAN, individuals
    residing in the state of Florida,
    Defendants-Appellees.
    _______________________
    No. 09-12587
    ________________________
    D.C. Docket No. 07-23066-CV-UU
    MOLINOS VALLE DEL CIBAO, C. por A.,
    a corporation of the Dominican Republic,
    Plaintiff-Appellee,
    versus
    OSCAR R. LAMA,
    CARLOS LAMA-SELIMAN,
    OSCAR LAMA-SELIMAN, individuals
    residing in the state of Florida,
    Defendants-Appellants.
    ________________________
    Appeals from the United States District Court
    for the Southern District of Florida
    _________________________
    (February 24, 2011)
    Before TJOFLAT and COX, Circuit Judges, and KORMAN,* District Judge.
    TJOFLAT, Circuit Judge:
    This case stems from a foreign currency exchange agreement. The plaintiff,
    a foreign corporation, bought United States dollars from the defendants, three
    individuals—two of whom it turns out are citizens of the Dominican Republic—in
    exchange for Dominican pesos. The plaintiff paid and the defendants did not; the
    plaintiffs sued. What was otherwise a simple state law breach of contract action
    *
    Honorable Edward R. Korman, United States District Judge for the Eastern District of New
    York, sitting by designation.
    2
    became much more complicated by inartful lawyering and the allure of treble
    damages.
    The defendants challenged subject matter jurisdiction at late junctures—on
    the eve of trial for one theory, on appeal for another—regarding issues they could
    have foreseen when they received the complaint over three years ago. The
    plaintiff, after being fully compensated under its breach of contract theory,
    contests the district court’s dismissal of its statutory worthless check claim, Fla.
    Stat. § 68.065. Under both claims the plaintiff would receive the same
    compensatory damages; the dismissed claim, however, would provide prevailing
    plaintiffs with treble damages.
    This opinion is organized as follows. Part I lays out the facts of the case
    and its procedural history. Part II discusses the three issues related to subject
    matter jurisdiction, and concludes that we have jurisdiction to hear the merits
    arguments regarding one defendant. Part III addresses the plaintiff’s two
    arguments regarding piercing the corporate veil—a necessary component for the
    worthless check claim. Part IV addresses the remaining defendant’s two
    arguments: that the district court erroneously admitted communications made
    during settlement negotiations; and that there was insufficient evidence to show
    3
    that the currency broker who negotiated the contract was the defendant’s agent.
    Part V concludes.
    I.
    A.
    This case stems from a Foreign Currency Exchange Agreement (“the
    Contract”) between the plaintiff, Molinos Valle Del Cibao, C. por A. (“Molinos”),
    and the three defendants (collectively, the “Lamas”), Oscar R. Lama (“Oscar Sr.”)
    and his two sons, Carlos Lama Seliman (“Carlos”) and Oscar Lama Seliman
    (“Oscar Jr.”). Molinos is a Dominican corporation. The Lamas themselves reside
    in Florida. Facts brought forward in supplemental briefing to this court show that
    Oscar Sr. is a dual citizen of the United States and the Dominican Republic, but
    that Carlos and Oscar Jr. are Dominican citizens working in the United States on
    non-immigrant worker visas.
    Molinos operates a flour mill, selling flour to the Dominican market, for
    which it receives Dominican pesos. Its suppliers, however, are often American
    companies; Molinos must pay their bills in United States dollars. To get the best
    exchange rate for its pesos, Molinos often hires currency brokers to find and
    contract with sellers of United States dollars.
    4
    In June 2004, Molinos needed to exchange approximately 28 million pesos
    for United States dollars to pay its suppliers. It hired a currency broker named
    Marcia Gabriela Bonnelly to find the best rate. To that end, she contacted Juan
    Mejia, another currency broker. One of Mejia’s clients, the Lama family, was
    looking to sell United States dollars. Mejia contacted one of the Lamas, Carlos,
    who approved the Contract: 28 million Dominican Pesos for $636,596.00.
    Molinos completed its side of the Contract; it drafted checks worth 28
    million pesos and gave them to Bonnelly, who passed them on to Mejia.1 The
    checks were not, however, made payable to any member of the Lamas family; they
    were payable to other individuals and another corporation controlled by the
    Lamas. Mejia testified at trial that this arrangement was normal for his
    transactions on behalf of the Lamas. The family often needed instant liquidity and
    therefore often requested that checks be made payable to their messengers, who
    would then cash the checks on their trip back to the Lamas’ office. The checks
    were honored and the Lamas received their pesos.
    In return, Molinos received a series of checks totaling $636,596.00. These
    checks were drawn from the accounts of two Dominican corporations, Chipstek,
    1
    The checks were not drafted from Molinos’s bank account; they were drafted on behalf of
    Agronomica Don Pedro, another corporation “related to Molinos.” Early in the litigation, the Lamas
    claimed that Molinos did not have standing to bring this claim because it did not draft the checks in
    question. The district court rejected this argument and the Lamas do not raise it on appeal.
    5
    S.A. (“Chipstek”) and Expertek, S.A. (“Expertek”), and signed by either Carlos or
    Oscar Jr. in their capacities as directors of Chipstek and Expertek. Both Chipstek
    and Expertek are wholly-owned subsidiaries of Globaltek, S.A. (“Globaltek”).2
    Globaltek is owned by ORLS International Holdings, which is in turn owned by
    L&S Corporation; members of the Lama family, including Oscar Sr., Carlos, and
    Oscar Jr., own L&S Corporation. The Lamas—Oscar Sr., Carlos, and Oscar
    Jr.—are board members of Chipstek and Expertek, but do not own these entities
    directly.
    2
    It is unclear if this statement is entirely true. The district court noted confusion in the record as
    to this point. Order on Defs.’ Mots. for J. as a Matter of Law 2 n.1. In the district court, Molinos
    asserted that Chipstek is 99.4 percent owned by Globaltek. Pl.’s Mem. Opp’n to Defs.’ Mot. for J. as a
    Matter of Law, or, in the Alternative, Mot. New Trial or Remittur 13–14 n.9. It is unclear who owns the
    remaining 0.6 percent. In its reply brief, Molinos asserts that Oscar Sr. “was not a shareholder of
    Globaltek, Chipstek or Expertek.” Appellant’s Reply Br. 15. But Oscar Sr.’s deposition testimony read
    at trial indicates that he owns a token amount of stock, though his testimony does not indicate how much.
    For the purposes of this opinion, we will treat Globaltek as if it owned 100 percent of Chipstek’s
    stock and ignore Oscar Sr.’s token interest. We feel comfortable doing this for two reasons. First, this
    issue is only potentially relevant regarding Molinos’s attempt to pierce Chipstek’s corporate veil. But
    Molinos’s brief to this court only argues that Oscar Sr. should be liable because he is a director of these
    companies. Appellant’s Reply Br. 10 (“The Law Does Not Require Ownership, it is Sufficient that the
    Lamas were Directors of Chipstek and Expertek”). Molinos has therefore waived any argument that
    Oscar Sr.’s token stock ownership should factor into our evaluation of Molinos’s veil piercing argument.
    Second, a brief investigation into Florida case law suggests that only controlling or majority
    shareholders may be liable for the corporation’s debts under a veil piercing theory. See, e.g., Seminole
    Boatyard, Inc. v. Christoph, 
    715 So. 2d 987
    , 989 (Fla. 4th Dist. Ct. App. 1998) (“If the state’s law allows
    the debtor corporation to assert a claim against a controlling shareholder to pierce its own corporate veil,
    then the claim is property of the estate.” (emphasis added) (citations omitted)); Estudios, Proyectos e
    Inversiones de Centro America, S.A. v. Swiss Bank Corp., 
    507 So. 2d 1119
    , 1120 (Fla. 3d Dist. Ct. App.
    1987) (“A corporation’s veil will be pierced where the corporation’s controlling shareholder formed or
    used the corporation to defraud creditors by evading liability for preexisting obligations.” (emphasis
    added)). Under this principle, even if Oscar Sr. is a nominal shareholder in either Chipstek or Expertek,
    only Globaltek, which owns 99 percent of the companies, would be eligible for veil piercing.
    6
    Although Chipstek and Expertek wrote these checks, Molinos’s trial
    testimony suggests that these corporations were not parties to the Contract.
    Bonnelly was familiar with the Lamas but had never before done business with
    these entities. Rather, she testified that the Lamas had a good reputation—“they
    were responsible morally also and solvent”—in the business community and she
    had consummated similar currency agreements with the Lamas on behalf of
    roughly ten to twelve of her other clients. Molinos’s General Manager, Ruben
    Reynoso, who approved the deal on Molinos’s behalf, likewise believed that the
    Lamas were Molinos’s contractual counter-party; he had never heard of Chipstek
    or Expertek. The Lamas’ reputation played a role in his approval of the Contract.
    This trust was misplaced; the checks bounced. Molinos’s bank informed
    Molinos that the accounts on which the checks were drawn either were overdrawn
    or had been closed.
    Wanting to resolve this issue, Molinos’s representatives met with the Lamas
    on several occasions between August and October 2004. At one of these
    meetings, Oscar Sr. acknowledged that his family, himself included, was
    responsible for the sum of the bounced checks.3 Carlos also acknowledged that
    3
    This statement comes from Mejia’s trial testimony. Although it is unclear when Oscar Sr. said
    this to Mejia, the reaction of the Lamas’ counsel suggests that it was during one of these negotiation
    meetings; the Lamas objected to its entry under Fed. R. Evid. 408, which generally bars admission of
    communications during settlement negotiations.
    7
    his family—he, Oscar Sr., and Oscar Jr.—was responsible for the debt. At the
    conclusion of the October 2004 meeting, Carlos signed a settlement agreement
    acknowledging personal liability for part of the debt and signed a corresponding
    promissory note.4 The parties met again in 2006 to discuss the debt, which the
    Lamas had not yet paid. Oscar Sr. attended that meeting and did not deny his
    personal liability under the Contract.
    Molinos never received its money. Its suppliers, however, still required
    payment. Several of its checks to these suppliers also bounced; they were issued
    in reliance on the availability of funds under the Contract. To cover its costs,
    Molinos had to borrow money, incurring interest.
    B.
    4
    The agreement covered not only a portion of the debt under the Contract, but also released
    claims pending in court in the Dominican Republic over separate transactions related to bad checks. It is
    unclear to what extent the negotiations described above covered both grounds—the debt and the
    Dominican Republic litigation. The district court’s order admitting these discussions in evidence
    suggests that it made a finding that the Lamas’ admissions of liability were not made during settlement
    negotiations surrounding the Dominican Republic litigation; the court permitted the jury to hear these
    statements but barred admission of “settlement negotiations and documentation regarding the
    [Dominican Republic] Proceeding.”
    The settlement agreement also provided a forum selection clause that requires all litigation
    regarding the Contract to occur in the Dominican Republic. The Lamas did not seek to enforce this
    clause in the district court and do not raise the issue on appeal.
    At trial, the Lamas’ counsel raised for the first time a defense of accord and satisfaction based on
    this settlement agreement. The district court refused to hear evidence on the issue because the Lamas
    never pled the defense in their answer. They do not appeal this ruling, either.
    8
    Molinos brought this suit against the Lamas in November 2007 in the
    United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida.5 The amended
    complaint contained six counts.6 Count I alleged that the Lamas breached the
    Contract. Counts II and III alleged fraud and negligent misrepresentation, but
    were dismissed at the pleading stage and are not challenged here. Count IV
    alleged a worthless check claim under Fla. Stat. § 68.065 and sought liability
    directly against the Lamas under the theory that because Chipstek and Expertek,
    the entities that issued the worthless checks, were the alter egos of the Lamas, the
    court should pierce the corporate veil. This count is notable because it carries
    with it the possibility of treble damages. Fla. Stat. § 68.065(1).7 Count V alleged
    a violation of the Florida Deceptive and Unfair Trade Practices Act (“FDUTPA”),
    Fla. Stat. § 501.204(1). Count VI alleged unjust enrichment, an alternative theory
    if the court did not find an express contract to sustain Count I.
    Regarding jurisdiction, Molinos cited diversity jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C.
    § 1332(a). Molinos alleged that it was a Dominican citizen and that the Lamas
    5
    The case was heard before District Judge Ursula Ungaro. The case was initially assigned to
    District Judge Patricia A. Seitz, but was transferred to Judge Ungaro when Judge Seitz recused on
    December 3, 2007.
    6
    Molinos filed his initial complaint on November 20, 2007, but filed an amended complaint on
    January 24, 2008.
    7
    At oral argument, Molinos’s counsel conceded that the reason it appealed the district court’s
    rejection of Count IV was the prospect of treble damages.
    9
    were “residents of Florida.” The Lamas did not contest diversity jurisdiction; their
    answer acknowledged that they were “domiciled” in Florida.
    Over the next months, the Lamas several times moved the court to dismiss
    the case. They moved to dismiss the amended complaint on February 7, 2008 for
    failure to state a claim for relief under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 12(b)(6).8
    The court granted this motion in part and dismissed Counts II and III, but denied
    the rest of the motion. On August 25, 2008, the Lamas moved for judgment on the
    pleadings under Rule 12(c); the court denied this motion. The Lamas also moved
    for summary judgment under Rule 56 on all claims on August 26, 2008; this
    motion was also denied.
    The Lamas filed a motion in limine on October 3, 2008. Pertinent to this
    appeal, the motion sought to exclude the promissory note signed by Carlos and
    any statements made during the purported settlement discussions during 2004 and
    2006. The district court denied the motion. It held that, because the Lamas never
    denied either the validity or the amount of Molinos’s claim during those
    negotiations, the negotiations were not covered by Federal Rule of Evidence 408.
    8
    The Lamas also moved to dismiss the amended complaint for insufficient service of process
    under Rule 12(b)(5) and for forum non conviens. The district court denied the Lamas’ motion on these
    grounds as well.
    This opinion references two sets of rules: the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and the Federal
    Rules of Evidence. We will refer to any Federal Rule of Civil Procedure simply as a “Rule” and any
    Federal Rule of Evidence as an “Evidence Rule.”
    10
    At trial, the court instructed the jury that the evidence was not being offered to
    show liability—i.e., that the Lamas’ conduct breached the contract—but rather to
    show that the Lamas, as opposed to Chipstek or Expertek, were Molinos’s true
    counter-parties.
    On January 20, 2009, the day before the trial began, the Lamas moved to
    dismiss the case on two grounds: (1) for lack of subject matter jurisdiction under
    Rule 12(b)(1) because all parties were aliens; and (2) for failure to join an
    indispensable party under Rule 12(b)(7). They argued that, because Chipstek and
    Expertek issued the checks and were therefore the “primary actors,” their
    Dominican citizenship should be imputed to the Lamas, thereby destroying
    alienage jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C. § 1332(a)(2) because Molinos, an alien,
    would be suing the Lamas, also aliens. In the alternative, they argued that
    Chipstek and Expertek were indispensable parties under Rule 19 and that the court
    must dismiss the case under Rule 12(b)(7) because they were not joined. The
    court delayed ruling on this motion until after trial and denied it on February 3,
    2009.
    The jury trial began on January 21, 2009 and featured three days of
    testimony. At the close of both the plaintiff’s and their own cases, the Lamas
    moved for judgment as a matter of law under Rule 50, citing insufficient evidence
    11
    on all claims. The court granted the motion in part. It dismissed the Count IV
    worthless check claim against all defendants because Molinos did not put forward
    evidence to pierce the corporate veil of either Chipstek or Expertek under an alter
    ego theory. It also refused to consider Molinos’s alternative argument for Count
    IV—that Chipstek and Expertek were the Lamas’ agents—because the court found
    that Molinos had never before raised that theory. The court also dismissed the
    Count V FDUTPA claim against Oscar Sr. because there was no evidence that he
    played any role in the issuance of the checks.
    The court then submitted to the jury the Count I breach of contract claim
    and Count VI unjust enrichment claim against all defendants, and the Count V
    FDUPTA claim against Carlos and Oscar Jr. The jury found for Molinos and
    awarded $1.4 million on Count I and $636,596.00 on Count V. The district court
    subsequently entered a judgment for that amount, holding all defendants jointly
    and severally liable for the damages.
    Shortly after the verdict, the Lamas again moved for judgment as a matter of
    law under Rule 50 and, alternatively, for a new trial under Rule 59. They first
    argued that there was insufficient evidence to show that Mejia was Oscar Sr.’s
    agent, either actual or apparent. The district court rejected this argument, finding
    that there was sufficient evidence to show that Oscar Sr. ratified Mejia’s acts. The
    12
    district court rejected the Lamas’ other arguments and allowed the verdict to stand,
    but modified the judgment to reflect Molinos’s actual damages, $774,106.88, and
    net pre-judgment interest of $327,322.33.9
    Both parties appealed. Molinos appealed the dismissal of its Count IV
    worthless check claim. The Lamas contested the subject matter jurisdiction ruling,
    challenged the court’s admission of the purported settlement negotiations, argued
    that Mejia was not authorized to bind the Lamas under Count I, and argued that
    Carlos and Oscar Jr. were not liable under the FDUPTA under Count V.
    At oral argument, the panel raised concerns regarding subject matter
    jurisdiction because it appeared that Carlos and Oscar Jr. might not be United
    States citizens. The parties submitted supplemental briefs on this issue. The
    Lamas presented copies of non-immigrant worker visas for both Carlos and Oscar
    Jr., as well as documentation proving that Oscar Sr. is a dual citizen of the United
    States and the Dominican Republic. In its supplemental reply brief, Molinos
    conceded that Carlos and Oscar Jr. are not United States citizens and therefore not
    proper parties in a diversity action brought by a foreign corporation (Molinos).10
    9
    Molinos agreed with the district court’s re-assessed damages and does not challenge them on
    appeal.
    10
    Molinos initially claimed, in its supplemental briefing to this court, that Carlos and Oscar Jr.
    were permanent residents of the United States and should be treated, for diversity purposes, as citizens of
    Florida under 28 U.S.C. § 1332(a), which states: “For the purposes of this section, . . . an alien admitted
    13
    It asked the court to dismiss Carlos and Oscar Jr. from the case and impose the full
    judgment solely against Oscar Sr.
    II.
    Whether this court has subject matter jurisdiction is an issue of law that we
    review de novo. Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Fla. v. United States, 
    619 F.3d 1286
    , 1288 (11th Cir. 2010). The parties now agree that Carlos and Oscar Jr. are
    not proper parties because they are Dominican citizens; their presence destroys
    full diversity under alienage jurisdiction. We must therefore vacate the judgment
    as it pertains to them.
    Oscar Sr.’s status in this case remains contested. The Lamas raise three
    possible bars to this court’s subject matter jurisdiction over the case as it pertains
    to Oscar Sr. First, they claim that Oscar Sr. is an improper party under 28 U.S.C.
    § 1332(a)(2) either because he is a dual citizen or because he is domiciled abroad.
    Second, because Carlos and Oscar Jr. are Dominican citizens, the Lamas argue
    that the district court never had jurisdiction to hear this case and that we must
    therefore vacate the judgment against Oscar Sr. and dismiss the entire case. Third,
    to the United States for permanent residence shall be deemed a citizen of the State in which such alien is
    domiciled.” 28 U.S.C. § 1332(a). Carlos’s and Oscar Jr.’s non-immigrant worker visas demonstrate that
    they are not permanent residents; permanent resident aliens would not need visas to work in the United
    States. Molinos apparently accepted these documents as authentic and abandoned its argument to the
    contrary.
    14
    the Lamas argue that we should impute the Dominican citizenship of Chipstek and
    Expertek to the Lamas—destroying diversity—because Chipstek and Expertek
    were the real actors in this case. We address each argument in turn.
    A.
    Alienage jurisdiction is a form of diversity jurisdiction under which federal
    courts may hear cases between “citizens of a State and citizens or subjects of a
    foreign state.” 28 U.S.C. § 1332(a)(2). Like the complete diversity rule in cases
    between citizens of different states, see Strawbridge v. Curtiss, 7 U.S. (3 Cranch)
    267, 267, 
    2 L. Ed. 435
    (1806), alienage jurisdiction prohibits an alien from suing
    another alien in federal court unless the suit includes United States citizens as
    plaintiffs and defendants, Iraola & CIA, S.A. v. Kimberly-Clark Corp., 
    232 F.3d 854
    , 860 (11th Cir. 2000). It is the burden of the party seeking federal jurisdiction
    to demonstrate that diversity exists by a preponderance of the evidence.
    McCormick v. Aderholt, 
    293 F.3d 1254
    , 1257 (11th Cir. 2002) (citing Scoggins v.
    Pollock, 
    727 F.2d 1025
    , 1026 (11th Cir. 1984)).
    In this case, the plaintiff, Molinos, is a Dominican corporation. The parties
    now agree that two of the three co-defendants, Oscar Jr. and Carlos, are citizens of
    the Dominican Republic and therefore are not proper parties in this diversity
    action.
    15
    Oscar Sr., the third defendant, is a dual citizen of the United States and the
    Dominican Republic. Molinos contends that dual citizens are considered to be
    United States citizens for diversity jurisdiction. Oscar Sr. argues that his
    Dominican citizenship defeats diversity: an alien plaintiff would be suing an alien
    defendant. In the alternative, he argues that he was not a citizen of Florida.
    Regarding Oscar Sr.’s first argument, this court has not explicitly
    determined whether aliens may sue individuals who are dual United States citizens
    under alienage jurisdiction. The courts of appeals deciding this issue have
    uniformly held that, for diversity purposes, courts should consider only the United
    States citizenship of individuals who are dual citizens. See, e.g., Sanchez v.
    Aerovias De Mex., S.A. De C.V., 
    590 F.3d 1027
    , 1028 n.1 (9th Cir. 2010); Frett-
    Smith v. Vanterpool, 
    511 F.3d 396
    , 399–400 (3d Cir. 2008); Coury v. Prot, 
    85 F.3d 244
    , 250 (5th Cir. 1996); Action S.A. v. Marc Rich & Co., 
    951 F.2d 504
    , 507
    (2d Cir. 1991); Sadat v. Mertes, 
    615 F.2d 1176
    , 1187 (7th Cir. 1980); see also Von
    Dunser v. Aronoff, 
    915 F.2d 1071
    , 1073–76 (6th Cir. 1990) (agreeing with Sadat’s
    reasoning, but finding no occasion to so hold because the facts regarding the
    parties’ domicile were unclear and required remand); Las Vistas Villas, S.A. v.
    Petersen, 
    778 F. Supp. 1202
    , 1204 (M.D. Fla. 1991), aff’d 
    13 F.3d 409
    (11th Cir.
    1994).
    16
    We are persuaded by the reasoning of these courts and therefore hold that an
    individual who is a dual citizen of the United States and another nation is only a
    citizen of the United States for the purposes of diversity jurisdiction under
    § 1332(a). Oscar Sr.’s Dominican citizenship therefore poses no bar to this court’s
    jurisdiction.
    Oscar Sr.’s second contention is that he is domiciled in the Dominican
    Republic and not domiciled in—and, hence, not a citizen of—Florida.11 He raises
    this possibility for the first time in his supplemental briefing: “[T]he record
    evidence demonstrates that Mr. Lama [Oscar Sr.] was living temporarily at an
    address in Florida, and that he had maintained various business interests in the
    Dominican Republic.” If true, this assertion would defeat diversity jurisdiction;
    U.S. citizens domiciled abroad are neither “citizens of a State” under § 1332(a) nor
    “citizens or subjects of a foreign state” and therefore are not proper parties to a
    diversity action in federal court. Newman-Green, Inc. v. Alfonzo-Larrain, 490
    11
    Oscar Sr. does not explicitly argue that he is domiciled in the Dominican Republic. His
    supplemental briefing discusses this topic in only one sentence. It says: “[T]he record evidence
    demonstrates that Mr. Lama [Oscar Sr.] was living temporarily at an address in Florida, and that he had
    maintained various business interests in the Dominican Republic.” Because everyone, with few
    exceptions, has a domicile, this excerpt suggests that his true domicile lies in the Dominican Republic.
    We also note that, under our normal waiver rules, we would not address this argument because of
    its cursory nature. Oscar Sr. has presented neither facts nor law to support the sentence quoted above.
    However, this issue raises questions of this court’s jurisdiction, which we must consider if in doubt.
    
    17 U.S. 826
    , 828–29, 
    109 S. Ct. 2218
    , 2221, 
    104 L. Ed. 2d 893
    (1989). Thus, our
    next question is whether Oscar Sr. is, in fact, domiciled in the State of Florida.
    “For adults, domicile is established by physical presence in a place in
    connection with a certain state of mind concerning one’s intent to remain there.”
    Miss. Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield, 
    490 U.S. 30
    , 48, 
    109 S. Ct. 1597
    ,
    1608, 
    104 L. Ed. 2d 29
    (1989); see also Sunseri v. Macro Cellular Partners, 
    412 F.3d 1247
    , 1249 (11th Cir. 2005). Domicile is not synonymous with residence;
    one may temporarily reside in one location, yet retain domicile in a previous
    residence. Although physically present in the current residence, the person does
    not intend to remain in that state indefinitely.
    The issue of Oscar Sr.’s domicile was never raised in the district court and
    our record on this topic is therefore lean. What facts exist, however, satisfy us that
    Oscar Sr. is domiciled in Florida.
    First, Oscar Sr. maintained throughout the litigation that he is “domiciled
    within the City of Aventura, Florida.” See Am. Answer and Affirmative Defenses
    to Am. Compl. ¶ 5; Joint Pretrial Stipulation 6. His admission in the amended
    answer is noteworthy. Molinos alleged only that Oscar Sr. was a “resident” of
    18
    Florida12 ; Oscar Sr.’s admission asserted not that he was merely a “resident” but
    that he was domiciled in Florida. Courts generally give little weight to a party’s
    profession of domicile; they do so because these declarations are often self-
    serving. 13E Charles Alan Wright, Arthur R. Miller & Edward H. Cooper, Federal
    Practice and Procedure § 3612, at 549 (3d ed. 2009). Here, however, quite the
    opposite is true. These admissions work against Oscar Sr.’s interest and thus carry
    evidentiary weight. See Fed. R. Evid. 801(d)(2)(A) (permitting hearsay statements
    by a party-opponent’s own mouth or through her representatives); cf. Fed. R. Evid.
    804(b)(3) (permitting hearsay from unavailable declarants if the statement
    “render[s] invalid a claim by the declarant against another [such that] a reasonable
    person in the declarant’s position would not have made the statement unless
    believing it to be true”).
    Next, Oscar Sr.’s deposition testimony given pretrial suggests that he
    permanently resides—and thus is domiciled—in Florida. He states that he is “a
    permanent resident of the United States” and has resided in the United States for
    12
    Ordinarily, the complaint must allege the citizenship, not residence, of the natural defendants.
    Taylor v. Appleton, 
    30 F.3d 1365
    , 1367 (11th Cir. 1994) (“Citizenship, not residence, is the key fact that
    must be alleged in the complaint to establish diversity for a natural person.”). We need not dismiss the
    amended complaint, however. 28 U.S.C. § 1653 provides: “Defective allegations of jurisdiction may be
    amended, upon terms, in the trial or appellate courts.” Because we read this provision liberally, see
    Toms v. Country Quality Meats, Inc., 
    610 F.2d 313
    , 316 (5th Cir. 1980), we will allow Oscar Sr.’s
    admissions and record evidence to cure Molinos’s pleading defect.
    19
    “two to three years.”13 When asked why he moved to the United States, Oscar Sr.
    replied, “Because I am retired. I am a citizen and like the United States.” As a
    “permanent resident,” Oscar Sr. suggests that he intends to reside in the United
    States permanently. He lived in Aventura, Florida when Molinos filed this suit;
    we may presume that, until controverted by fact, he is domiciled at his current
    residence. See Slaughter v. Toye Bros. Yellow Cab Co., 
    359 F.2d 954
    , 956 (5th
    Cir. 1966) (describing a “presumption of domicile in the jurisdiction where the
    party is a resident at the crucial time, which in this case is the time of the
    commencement of the action”).14 Furthermore, Oscar Sr.’s retirement decreases
    the likelihood that his move to Florida was a temporary business arrangement.
    Against this evidence, Oscar Sr. merely states that his residence in Florida
    was “temporary” and that he had continuing business interests in the Dominican
    Republic. To prove this assertion, Oscar Sr. says only that “the record evidence
    demonstrates” his claim.
    13
    This statement came from Oscar Sr.’s interpreter. The transcript reads:
    Q. How long have you lived [at your residence in Aventura]?
    THE INTERPRETER: He doesn’t remember exactly since he came to the United
    States, two to three years.
    14
    The Eleventh Circuit adopted as binding precedent all holdings of the Fifth Circuit prior to
    October 1, 1981. Bonner v. City of Prichard, 
    661 F.2d 1206
    , 1207 (11th Cir. 1981) (en banc).
    20
    The record before us refutes Oscar Sr.’s two claims. Regarding his
    “temporary” residence, his deposition testimony does state that he resides
    “[t]emporarily at 2600 Island Boulevard, Aventura, Florida.” “Temporary” did
    not, however, mean that he was planning at some point to leave Florida. Rather, it
    was temporary because, as Oscar Sr. stated, “it is not my property. Somebody is
    loaning it to me and I am using it as long as I am provided with it.” When asked
    whether he had a “permanent residence,” he did not claim any city in the
    Dominican Republic; he was “a permanent resident of the United States” and “an
    American citizen.”
    Oscar Sr.’s purported Dominican business interests are similarly suspect.
    First, his deposition testimony states that he is “retired.” Second, his trial
    testimony shows that, although he was on the board of directors of many
    companies,15 these positions were “honorary” and required little effort on his part.
    With the evidence before us, we are persuaded that Oscar Sr. is a citizen of
    Florida and therefore a proper defendant under § 1332(a)(2).
    B.
    15
    His trial testimony does not give the nationality of any of these companies. We will assume
    for the sake of argument that they are all Dominican.
    21
    We therefore turn to a more difficult question: must we dismiss the entire
    case and vacate the judgment for lack of subject matter jurisdiction because
    neither Carlos nor Oscar Jr. were proper parties?
    An appellate court has the power under Rule 21 to rescue an otherwise valid
    judgment by dismissing non-diverse parties. 
    Newman-Green, 490 U.S. at 832
    –37,
    109 S. Ct. at 2222–25; 
    Iraola, 232 F.3d at 860
    –61; see also Grupo Dataflux v.
    Atlas Global Group, L.P., 
    541 U.S. 567
    , 572–73, 
    124 S. Ct. 1920
    , 1925, 158 L.
    Ed. 2d 866 (2004) (“[C]ourts of appeals also have the authority to cure a
    jurisdictional defect by dismissing a dispensable nondiverse party.”). The relevant
    portion of Rule 21 provides: “Misjoinder of parties is not a ground for dismissing
    an action. On motion or on its own, the court may at any time, on just terms, add
    or drop a party.” Fed. R. Civ. P. 21.
    In using this power, the United States Supreme Court has cautioned that we
    should do so “sparingly” and only if no party will be prejudiced by the dismissal.
    
    Newman-Green, 490 U.S. at 837
    –38, 109 S. Ct. at 2225. Against this caution,
    however, lies another command from the Supreme Court: “Once a diversity case
    has been tried in federal court, . . . considerations of finality, efficiency, and
    economy become overwhelming.” Caterpillar, Inc. v. Lewis, 
    519 U.S. 61
    , 75, 
    117 S. Ct. 467
    , 476, 
    136 L. Ed. 2d 437
    (1996) (emphasis added); see also
    22
    
    Newman-Green, 490 U.S. at 838
    , 109 S. Ct. at 2226 (“Nothing but a waste of time
    and resources would be engendered by remanding to the District Court or by
    forcing these parties to begin anew.”). Keeping in mind that this case has already
    been to a jury trial, we commence our inquiry.
    Two factors establish prejudice under the Newman-Green framework. We
    first determine whether the non-diverse party is indispensable under Rule 19.
    
    Newman-Green, 490 U.S. at 835
    , 109 S. Ct. at 2224. If the party is indispensable,
    then we must dismiss the entire case. See Fritz v. Am. Home Shield Corp., 
    751 F.2d 1152
    , 1155 (11th Cir. 1985) (“[The Plaintiff] apparently never requested the
    court to determine that [the non-diverse defendant] was not an indispensable party
    to the action under Rule 19, a finding that must be made before a Rule 21
    dismissal of a nondiverse party is appropriate.” (citing Ralli-Coney, Inc. v. Gates,
    
    528 F.2d 572
    , 575 (5th Cir. 1976)). Next, we must inquire whether the presence
    of the non-diverse party provided the other side with a tactical advantage in the
    litigation. 
    Newman-Green, 492 U.S. at 838
    , 109 S. Ct. at 2225.
    Rule 19 provides the rules for mandatory joinder of parties. For our
    purposes, Rule 19 is a two-step inquiry. First, we determine whether the
    parties—here Carlos and Oscar Jr.—are “required” parties. Fed. R. Civ. P. 19(a);
    see also Temple v. Synthes Corp., 
    498 U.S. 5
    , 7, 
    111 S. Ct. 315
    , 316, 
    112 L. Ed. 23
    2d 263 (1990). If they are required parties, but cannot be joined—i.e., because
    they are non-diverse—Rule 19(b) provides a list of factors to “determine whether,
    in equity and good conscience, the action should proceed among the existing
    parties or should be dismissed.” Fed. R. Civ. P. 19(b).16
    Assuming that Carlos and Oscar Jr. are required parties, Oscar Sr. has not
    shown that they are indispensable under Rule 19(b). The Rule provides:
    If a person who is required to be joined if feasible cannot be joined,
    the court must determine whether, in equity and good conscience, the
    action should proceed among the existing parties or should be
    dismissed. The factors for the court to consider include:
    (1) the extent to which a judgment rendered in the
    person’s absence might prejudice that person or the
    existing parties;
    (2) the extent to which any prejudice could be lessened
    or avoided by:
    (A) protective provisions in the judgment;
    (B) shaping the relief; or
    (C) other measures;
    (3) whether a judgment rendered in the person’s absence
    would be adequate; and
    (4) whether the plaintiff would have an adequate remedy
    if the action were dismissed for non-joinder.
    Fed. R. Civ. P. 19(b). These factors are “not intended to exclude other
    considerations”; “pragmatic considerations” play a key role in our determination.
    Fed. R. Civ. P. 19 advisory committee’s notes.
    16
    It is in this sense that “indispensibility” is akin to prejudice.
    24
    Consideration (1) does not aid Oscar Sr. He claims prejudice because “he
    will be held liable on a contract of which there is no evidence that he had any part
    in the formation, based on the alleged acts of two individuals, also allegedly
    parties to the contract, which were never properly before the court.” This
    argument is non-responsive to the inquiry. The advisory committee notes suggest
    that the prejudice involved relates to the judgment itself; “[w]ould any party be
    exposed to a fresh action by the absentee [party], and if so, how serious is the
    threat?” Fed. R. Civ. P. 19 advisory committee’s notes. Oscar Sr. will not be
    required to breach any duties to Carlos or Oscar Jr. by paying money damages to
    Molinos.
    Considerations (2) and (3) also weigh against dismissal. These provisions
    come into play when—unlike this case—litigants seek specific relief such as an
    injunction. In that context, if a party ultimately responsible for the plaintiff’s woes
    is not present, the court cannot direct that party to change its behavior. See, e.g.,
    Wymbs v. Republican State Exec. Comm. of Fla., 
    719 F.2d 1072
    , 1080 (11th Cir.
    1983). Money damages lack these concerns. Money is fungible; the recipient
    cares not from whence it came. See Fed. R. Civ. P. 19 advisory committee’s notes
    (stating that money damages in lieu of specific relief would alleviate adequacy
    concerns).
    25
    Adequate remedies, consideration (4), is contested by the parties. We need
    not address this issue, however, because yet another practical consideration
    weighs against dismissal. The federal courts have invested significant resources in
    this matter: fifteen months of proceedings in the district court and a full jury trial.
    This concern for conserving judicial resources, along with the above analysis,
    demonstrates that “equity and good conscience” do not require that we find Oscar
    Jr. and Carlos to be indispensable parties.
    We also cannot find a tactical advantage gained here. Tactical advantages
    include access to otherwise unavailable discovery materials only because of the
    presence of the improper party. See 
    Newman-Green, 490 U.S. at 838
    , 109 S. Ct. at
    2225–26. Oscar Sr. has not pointed to any discovery Molinos would not have
    otherwise received or witnesses it could not have called; he concedes that Oscar
    Jr. and Carlos were within the court’s subpoena power. Oscar Sr. contends that,
    because Carlos and Oscar Jr. were forced to testify on their own behalf, Molinos
    gained an advantage by questioning them on cross-examination rather than on
    direct examination. This concern is irrelevant; he does not claim that Carlos and
    Oscar Jr. would testify to different facts in this counterfactual.
    Oscar Sr. also complains that he was prejudiced because most of the
    evidence at trial dealt with the conduct of Oscar Jr. and Carlos. This concern is
    26
    similarly irrelevant. The jury found Oscar Sr. liable for breaching the contract
    with Molinos. Were he tried separately, Molinos would present the same facts to
    the jury; Oscar Sr. has not pointed to any evidence that would be inadmissible or
    otherwise unavailable at this hypothetical trial. We cannot assume a different
    outcome without different facts.
    We further note that, even if Oscar Sr. did suffer a tactical disadvantage, he
    had the power to remedy that issue. He, Oscar Jr., and Carlos were represented by
    the same counsel, who could have discovered that Oscar Jr. and Carlos were
    Dominican citizens. What is more, Oscar Sr. must have known his sons’
    immigration statuses. Had Oscar Sr. raised these jurisdiction concerns earlier in
    the district court—or even at all—we might be sympathetic; as he did not, we are
    not. See Ingram v. CSX Transp., Inc., 
    146 F.3d 858
    , 862–63 (11th Cir. 1998)
    (“[Prejudice concerns] might be persuasive where a litigant raises the
    jurisdictional issue at an earlier stage in the proceedings. [The litigant], however,
    waited until her oral argument presentation on appeal—long after the district
    court’s adverse ruling on the merits of her case. We decline to reward such
    delay.”).
    27
    Oscar Sr. will face no prejudice as the sole defendant in this case. We
    therefore use our Rule 21 power to dismiss Carlos and Oscar Jr. from this case and
    retain Oscar Sr.
    C.
    The Lamas—now just Oscar Sr.—challenge diversity on yet another
    ground. He claims that Molinos improperly omitted Chipstek and Expertek—the
    writers of the bad checks—as defendants because their Dominican citizenship
    would destroy complete diversity. Accordingly, he argues that we should either
    impute the Dominican citizenship to Oscar Sr. or that Chipstek and Expertek are
    indispensable parties under Rule 19.17
    Oscar Sr.’s imputation argument flows from a corporate-law analogy, citing
    a case from the Fifth Circuit, Freeman v. Northwest Acceptance Corp., 
    754 F.2d 553
    (5th Cir. 1985). There, the plaintiff sought to hold a parent corporation liable
    for its subsidiary’s actions on the theory that the subsidiary was the parent’s alter
    ego—the same theory Molinos cited to hold Oscar Sr. liable under the Count IV
    17
    The Lamas made both arguments before the district court. On appeal, however, it appears that
    the Lamas chose to focus solely on the Rule 19 argument. Under normal circumstances, the imputation
    argument would thus be waived. We will address this argument, however, out of an abundance of
    caution because, if meritorious, it could deprive this court of subject matter jurisdiction and thus the
    power to hear this appeal.
    28
    worthless check claim. See 
    id. at 554–55.
    The court of appeals imputed the
    subsidiary’s citizenship to the parent and in doing so destroyed complete diversity.
    Two strands of corporate case law supported the court’s ruling. First,
    consolidated corporations may, in certain circumstances, retain the citizenship of
    both pre-consolidated companies. 
    Id. at 556
    (citing John Mohr & Sons v. Apex
    Terminal Warehouses, Inc., 
    422 F.2d 638
    , 641 (7th Cir. 1970)). A second line of
    cases dealt with personal jurisdiction; the subsidiary’s amenability to service of
    process would be imputed to the parent where the parent was sued for the
    subsidiary’s actions. 
    Id. at 557–58
    (citations omitted). Essentially, the court
    looked to substance over form and imputed the subsidiary’s citizenship to the
    parent as if it had incorporated in multiple states. 
    Id. at 558.
    The district court rejected this argument as applied to Molinos. First, the
    court noted that “Molinos . . . has looked at substance over form” and sued the
    actual party responsible for its harm—the Lamas. Second, the court refused to
    extend Freeman’s parent-subsidiary imputation to suits against shareholders.
    Regarding the Count I breach of contract claim, the district court’s first
    basis is persuasive. Molinos alleged, and the jury believed, that the Lamas
    personally entered into a contract with Molinos via the Lamas’ agent. Under these
    29
    terms, Chipstek and Expertek were not parties to the contract, and therefore not
    proper parties in this lawsuit.
    We find the district court’s second explanation persuasive as to the Count
    IV worthless check claim that Molinos presses on appeal. Freeman’s logic is
    inapposite when applied to individuals.18 Corporations are “citizens” for diversity
    purposes wherever they are incorporated and have their principal place of
    business. 28 U.S.C. § 1332(c)(1). As a result, corporations may be citizens of
    multiple states. Furthermore, corporations can merge and re-form themselves
    wherever and in as many states as they please. Individuals have no such parallel.
    They are only citizens of the state in which they are domiciled, McCormick v.
    Aderholt, 
    293 F.3d 1254
    , 1257–58 (11th Cir. 2002); see also 28 U.S.C.
    § 1332(a)(1), and they have only one domicile, 13E Charles A. Wright, et al.,
    supra, § 3612, at 528. They cannot choose to split their identities and
    “incorporate” in a second state.
    Freeman’s analogy to personal jurisdiction is similarly unavailing. Every
    individual has but one domicile and is a citizen of only one state. That same
    individual, however, is amenable to process in any state in which the individual
    18
    We have no opinion whether Freeman’s holding is sound and should be followed by this
    Circuit. Rather, we merely hold that, whatever its validity elsewhere, its logic does not apply to
    individuals.
    30
    maintains “minimum contacts.” PVC Windoors, Inc. v. Babbitbay Beach Const.,
    N.V., 
    598 F.3d 802
    , 807 (11th Cir. 2010). But having minimum contacts with one
    state does not change an individual’s domicile. Cf. 
    Sunseri, 412 F.3d at 1249
    (defining domicile as one’s “true, fixed and permanent home and principal
    establishment, and to which he has the intention of returning whenever he is
    absent therefrom” (citations omitted)). It therefore follows that, if an individual
    were conducting her business via a corporate shell, the corporation’s minimum
    contacts would not, even if they could increase the number of states in which she
    could be sued, alter her domicile.
    We therefore reject Oscar Sr.’s imputation argument. Instead, he must
    convince this court that Chipstek and Expertek are indispensable parties under
    Rule 19 and that the district court erred in failing to dismiss the case under Rule
    12(b)(7).
    As stated above, Rule 19 provides for mandatory joinder of “required”
    parties, whose absence will prejudice either the absent party or the litigants.
    Where the required party cannot be joined—because doing so would defeat
    subject matter jurisdiction—the court must determine whether the lawsuit can
    proceed without the party “in equity and good conscience.” Fed. R. Civ. P. 19(b).
    The court must consider the prejudice suffered by the litigants, whether it can
    31
    shape relief to avoid prejudice, whether a judgment would be adequate, and
    whether the plaintiff would have an adequate remedy if the action were dismissed.
    
    Id. Again, these
    factors are not exclusive, and the court may consider other
    “pragmatic considerations.” 
    Id. advisory committee’s
    notes.
    The district court rejected the Lamas’ Rule 19 argument principally because
    it was filed on the first day of trial. Although Rule 12(b)(7) motions may be raised
    even at trial, the late timing violated the district court’s scheduling order because
    dispositive motions were due months earlier.
    While we do not disagree with the district court’s ruling, Oscar Sr.’s brief to
    this court provides a simpler basis with which to reject his argument: he does not
    articulate any reason why he or the absent parties would be prejudiced. As the
    party invoking Rule 19, it is his burden to demonstrate which Rule 19(b) factors
    required dismissal “in equity and good conscience.” See Focus on the Family v.
    Pinellas Suncoast Transit Auth., 
    344 F.3d 1263
    , 1280 (11th Cir. 2003) (“However,
    [the moving party] has identified no reason why [the absent party] cannot be
    joined in this action [thus requiring dismissal under Rule 19(b)].”).
    His only colorable argument lies in a citation to relevant authority stating
    that the acting subsidiary is a necessary party when a plaintiff sues the parent
    corporation for the subsidiaries’ actions. See, e.g., 
    Freeman, 754 F.2d at 559
    .
    32
    Even here, his argument fails; the only binding precedent he cites, Dernick v.
    Bralorne Resources, Ltd., 
    639 F.2d 196
    (5th Cir. 1981), held that the subsidiary in
    question was not indispensable. See 
    id. at 199–200
    (finding that the subsidiary
    would not be harmed because the plaintiff’s money damages against the parent
    would not harm the subsidiary’s title to the relevant property).
    Chipstek and Expertek are not indispensable parties and we need not
    dismiss this action under Rule 19. With the jurisdictional issues settled, we now
    move to the merits of the parties’ appeals.
    III.
    Molinos appeals the district court’s January 26 order dismissing the Count
    IV worthless check claim under Rule 50. The district court found that Molinos
    had not presented sufficient evidence at trial to pierce the corporate veil of both
    Chipstek and Expertek to hold the Lamas personally liable for the bad checks
    issued under those corporate names. Rule 50 provides in relevant part:
    If a party has been fully heard on an issue during a jury trial and the
    court finds that a reasonable jury would not have a legally sufficient
    evidentiary basis to find for the party on that issue, the court may:
    (A) resolve the issue against the party; and
    (B) grant a motion for judgment as a matter of law
    against the party on a claim or defense that, under the
    controlling law, can be maintained or defeated only with
    a favorable finding on that issue.
    33
    Fed. R. Civ. P. 50(a)(1). We review this claim de novo and consider the evidence
    in the light most favorable to the non-moving party. Abel v. Dubberly, 
    210 F.3d 1334
    , 1337 (11th Cir. 2000).
    In deciding these claims, we are applying Florida’s substantive law. See
    Erie R.R. Co. v. Tompkins, 
    304 U.S. 64
    , 78, 
    58 S. Ct. 817
    , 822, 
    82 L. Ed. 1188
    (1938). Where the highest court—in this case, the Florida Supreme Court—has
    spoken on the topic, we follow its rule. Where that court has not spoken, however,
    we must predict how the highest court would decide this case. Guideone Elite Ins.
    Co. v. Old Cutler Presbyterian Church, Inc., 
    420 F.3d 1317
    , 1326 n.5 (11th Cir.
    2005). Decisions of the intermediate appellate courts—here, the Florida District
    Courts of Appeal—provide data for this prediction. Bravo v. United States, 
    577 F.3d 1324
    , 1325 (11th Cir. 2009) (per curiam) (citing West v. Am. Tel. & Tel. Co.,
    
    311 U.S. 223
    , 237, 
    61 S. Ct. 179
    , 183, 
    85 L. Ed. 139
    (1940)). As a general matter,
    we must follow the decisions of these intermediate courts. Allstate Life Ins. Co. v.
    Miller, 
    424 F.3d 1113
    , 1116 (11th Cir. 2005). But we may disregard these
    decisions if persuasive evidence demonstrates that the highest court would
    conclude otherwise. 
    Id. Here, piercing
    the corporate veil was necessary to hold Oscar Sr. and the
    Lamas liable for the worthless checks. Florida’s worthless check statute, Fla. Stat.
    34
    § 68.065, punishes the making or drawing of a bad check. But individual signers
    of corporate checks are not liable for those checks; the corporation remains liable.
    See Fla. Stat. § 673.4021(3). Chipstek and Expertek were the true “violators” of
    the worthless check statute. Molinos therefore sought to hold Oscar Sr. liable for
    Chipstek’s and Expertek’s actions by piercing the corporate veil under alter ego
    and agency theories.
    Molinos challenges the district court’s ruling on two fronts. First, Molinos
    argues that it did present sufficient evidence to pierce the veil under an alter ego
    theory. Second, it claims that it also presented evidence that Chipstek and
    Expertek were the Lamas’ agents, and therefore we may impute the worthless
    check to them personally. We find neither of these arguments availing.
    A.
    On appeal, Molinos argues that the district court erroneously concluded that
    it did not present sufficient evidence to pierce the veils of Chipstek and Expertek
    under an alter ego theory. In the district court, Molinos claimed that the Lamas,
    Oscar Sr. included, controlled these corporations by virtue of their positions on the
    board of directors.19 Molinos needed to pierce these veils because only Chipstek
    19
    As stated earlier, see supra note 2, the record is unclear whether Oscar Sr. is also a shareholder
    in either of these companies. Molinos, however, only asserts that Oscar Sr. is liable by virtue of his
    director position; it clearly does not believe that Oscar Sr. is a shareholder. We will honor Molinos’s
    wishes and disregard the possibility that Oscar Sr. is a shareholder of Chipstek or Expertek.
    35
    and Expertek, the signer of the checks, could be held liable under Florida’s
    worthless check statute. The alter ego theory could work around this hurdle.
    In retort, the Lamas argue that Molinos’s veil piercing argument fails as a
    matter of law because the Lamas were not shareholders of either corporation;
    Globaltek owned the companies.20 Although the Florida Supreme Court has never
    squarely answered this question, we predict that it would agree with the Lamas
    and reject Molinos’s argument.
    A corporation is a legal entity—a fictional person—capable of entering
    contracts and doing business in its own right. The purpose of this fiction is to
    limit the liability of the corporation’s owners, whether they be individuals or other
    corporations. Finding this arrangement useful to commerce, the Florida courts
    will not easily disregard this fiction. See Roberts’ Fish Farm v. Spencer, 
    153 So. 2d
    718, 721 (Fla. 1963).
    It is black letter law in Florida that to disregard this corporate fiction and
    hold the corporation’s owners liable—to “pierce the corporate veil”—the plaintiff
    must prove that:
    (1) the shareholder dominated and controlled the corporation to such
    an extent that the corporation’s independent existence, was in fact
    20
    The Lamas raise this argument for the first time on appeal. Were they the appellant for this
    claim, we would find the argument duly waived. However, we may affirm the district court’s ruling on
    any ground supported by the record. Powers v. United States, 
    996 F.2d 1121
    , 1123–24 (11th Cir. 1993).
    36
    non-existent and the shareholders were in fact alter egos of the
    corporation;
    (2) the corporate form must have been used fraudulently or for an
    improper purpose; and
    (3) the fraudulent or improper use of the corporate form caused injury
    to the claimant.
    Gasparini v. Pordomingo, 
    972 So. 2d 1053
    , 1055 (Fla. 3d Dist. Ct. App. 2008)
    (emphasis added) (citations omitted); see also 8A Fla. Jur. 2d Business
    Relationships § 13 (2008). “Shareholders” include individuals who own stock,
    see, e.g., McCormack v. Ribbeck, 
    702 So. 2d 271
    , 271–72 (Fla. 1st Dist. Ct. App.
    1997), and parent companies who own their subsidiaries, see, e.g., 17315 Collins
    Ave., LLC v. Fortune Dev. Sales Corp., 
    34 So. 3d 166
    , 168 (Fla. 3d Dist. Ct. App.
    2010).
    The theme of ownership underlies Florida’s leading case on piercing the
    corporate veil, Dania Jai-Alai Palace, Inc., v. Sykes, 
    450 So. 2d 1114
    (Fla. 1984).
    In Sykes, the plaintiff sued a parent company and its two subsidiaries. Although
    only one of the subsidiaries committed the tort in question, the plaintiff alleged
    that the subsidiaries operated as one entity and that these subsidiaries were the
    “mere instrumentalities” of the parent, which should be liable for the subsidiary’s
    actions. 
    Id. at 1116.
    The trial court accepted this argument and the district court
    37
    of appeal affirmed, holding that the plaintiff need not prove any fraud or
    wrongdoing on the part of the parent corporation, the subsidiaries’ owner. 
    Id. The Florida
    Supreme Court rejected this understanding, and in doing so,
    based the rationale for piercing the veil on shareholder liability. The court
    explained that shareholders incorporate to limit their liability, creating a separate
    entity that is “apart from its stockholders.” 
    Id. at 1118
    (quoting Riesen v. Md.
    Cas. Co., 
    14 So. 2d 197
    , 199 (Fla. 1943)). Correspondingly, courts will not ignore
    this separate entity so long as the stockholders make “proper use” of this fiction;
    they must not use limited liability to defraud creditors. 
    Id. (citing Riesen,
    14 So.
    2d 
    at 199; Barnes v. Liebig, 
    1 So. 2d 247
    , 253–54 (Fla. 1941)). It is when
    shareholders “improperly disregard[] the corporate identities” that litigants may
    peel back the veil of limited liability and hold the corporation’s owners
    responsible for its debts. 
    Id. Sykes’s discussion
    of another seminal case, Mayer v. Eastwood-Smith &
    Co., 
    164 So. 684
    (Fla. 1935), also emphasizes ownership. In Mayer, the
    individual defendant loaned bonds to the corporation in exchange for 25 percent
    of the corporation’s profits and held, as security, the corporation’s stock. 
    Id. at 684–85.
    As the Sykes court explained, the individual in Mayer was not liable
    because he
    38
    owned none of the stock, held it only as security, never made use or
    claimed ownership of the stock, and did not commit any improper act.
    In other words, [he] had no relationship with the corporation under
    any theory that would warrant holding him liable for the debts of the
    corporation and had not committed any improper act.
    
    Sykes, 450 So. 2d at 1118
    (emphasis added).
    Oscar Sr., the remaining defendant, did not own stock in Chipstek or
    Expertek. Globaltek owned the shares.21 As stated above, normal veil piercing
    cases seek to hold the parent corporation—here Globaltek—liable, not the parent’s
    shareholders or the subsidiary’s officers. See USP Real Estate Inv. Trust v.
    Discount Auto Parts, Inc., 
    570 So. 2d 386
    , 393 (Fla. 1st Dist. Ct. App. 1990).
    Molinos contends, however, that this argument is a “contrived approach” to
    the law and that Florida permits suits against individuals who are not shareholders.
    Molinos cites two cases for this proposition. The first case, In re Multiponics,
    Inc., 
    622 F.2d 709
    (5th Cir. 1980), is inapposite because the individual was also
    the sole shareholder of the company in question, 
    id. at 725.
    Molinos cites one case that pierces the veil against a non-shareholder
    officer. Walton v. Tomax Corp., 
    632 So. 2d 178
    , 181 n.2 (Fla. 5th Dist. Ct. App.
    1994); see also Bermil Corp. v. Sawyer, 
    353 So. 2d 579
    , 584 (Fla. 3d Dist. Ct.
    21
    Globaltek was in turn owned by ORLS International Holdings, which was in turn owned by
    L&S Corp., which was, finally, owned by the Lamas. Again, we follow Molinos’s lead and disregard
    any potential shares Oscar Sr. may own in either Chipstek or Expertek. See supra note 2.
    
    39 Ohio App. 1978
    ) (holding similarly on similar facts, but not cited by Molinos). This
    case is distinguishable for two reasons. First, the corporation in question was not
    the subsidiary of another corporation. Second, the sole shareholder in that case
    was the defendant-officer’s wife. 
    Walton, 632 So. 2d at 179
    ; see also 
    Sawyer, 353 So. 2d at 582
    . The Florida Supreme Court would likely find that second fact
    dispositive; a wife’s ownership is a very close analogue to the husband’s
    ownership because the economic proceeds likely benefit the entire family unit. A
    separate corporate entity is nothing like a spouse.
    Our research shows only one other case in which a Florida District Court of
    Appeal explicitly found a non-shareholder liable under a veil-piercing theory.
    Seminole Boatyard, Inc. v. Christoph, 
    715 So. 2d 987
    , 990 (Fla. 4th Dist. Ct. App.
    1998). In Seminole, the individual held liable was also the president of the
    corporation in question. 
    Id. at 988.
    It is not clear, however, that the individual
    was not also a stockholder. First, the court does not state who actually owned
    stock. Second, the court, in two different parts of the opinion, expresses the
    relevant law in terms of “shareholders.” 
    Id. at 989
    (“If the state’s law allows the
    debtor corporation to assert a claim against a controlling shareholder to pierce its
    own corporate veil, then the claim is property of the estate.” (emphasis added)); 
    id. at 990
    (restating the black letter law for piercing the corporate veil in terms of
    40
    “shareholder” domination and control). And even if this individual did not own
    stock, we are confident that the Florida courts’ emphasis on ownership would
    cause the Florida Supreme Court to pay this precedent little heed.
    We therefore conclude that Florida law, as we predict the Florida Supreme
    Court would decide, does not permit a plaintiff to pierce the corporate veil against
    a non-shareholder director. If Molinos believed that Chipstek and Expertek were
    really sham entities, it should have sued Globaltek, not Oscar Sr.22
    B.
    Molinos’s second issue on appeal argues that Chipstek and Expertek were
    the Lamas’ agents, and that their actions should be imputed to Oscar Sr. The
    district court rejected this argument in its order granting the Lamas judgment as a
    matter of law on the Count IV worthless check claim. It found that Molinos had
    never before alleged that the two corporations were the Lamas’ agents; the court
    refused to address the claim.
    Rule 8 sets the standard for pleadings. It requires the plaintiff to include “a
    short and plain statement of the claim showing that the pleader is entitled to
    relief.” Fed. R. Civ. P. 8(a)(2). Rule 8(d)(2) permits the plaintiff to “set out 2 or
    22
    Molinos could hypothetically hold Oscar Sr. liable by piercing the corporate veil through each
    corporation between Globaltek and Oscar Sr. However, Molinos does not pursue this theory.
    41
    more statements of a claim . . . alternatively or hypothetically, either in a single
    count or defense or in separate ones.” If the evidence at trial brings to light a new
    theory of liability, the plaintiff may move the court to amend the pleadings if
    doing so would not prejudice the defendants. Fed. R. Civ. P. 15(b).
    We agree with the district court that Molinos did not raise an agency theory
    in any of its court filings up until trial. The amended complaint only asserts the
    alter ego theory to hold the Lamas liable for Chipstek’s and Expertek’s actions.
    See Am. Compl. ¶ 21 (“At all material times to this Complaint, Molinos and the
    Lamas were well aware that these entities were in effect mere instrumentalities,
    alter egos, of the Lamas . . . .” (emphasis added)); 
    id. ¶ 56
    (“The Lamas, as herein
    described, utilizing several of their wholly controlled or wholly owned entities as
    their alter egos issued and caused to be issued to Molinos four checks totaling U.S.
    $636,596.00.” (emphasis added)). Nowhere does it allege an agency relationship.
    In opposing the Lamas’ motion to dismiss, Molinos asserted the alter ego
    argument exclusively; it did not argue that the corporations were the Lamas’
    agents. See Pl.’s Mem. Opp’n to Def.’s Mot. to Dismiss 18 (“Defendants, who
    were personally liable to Plaintiff under the Foreign Currency Exchange
    Agreement, used Chipstek and Expertek as their alter egos.”). In fact, the district
    42
    court explicitly credited the alter ego theory in denying the motion to dismiss.
    Order Defs.’ Mot. to Dismiss 9.
    Furthermore, the parties’ Joint Pretrial Stipulation continued to
    assert—contrary to Molinos’s argument to this court—an alter ego theory
    exclusively. In its statement of the case, Molinos states: “At no time during the
    numerous meetings and conversations held by representatives of Molinos and the
    Lamas personally, did the Lamas assert that . . . Chipstek and Expertek were not
    mere instrumentalities utilized to issue the worthless checks to Molinos.” J.
    Pretrial Stipulation 4. Under its “contested issues,” Molinos raised, “whether
    Defendants disregarded the corporate formalities and used Chipstek, S.A. and
    Expertek, S.A. as their mere instrumentalities.” 
    Id. at 7.
    Molinos used the word “agent” for the first time at the January 22 hearing,
    defending against the Lamas’ motion for judgment as a matter of law at the close
    of Molinos’s case in chief. In passing, Molinos’s counsel said, “We’re arguing
    here from the outset that Chipstek and Expertek were mere agents of the Lamas.
    So, either under the alter ego theory or an agency theory, the real parties here were
    the Lamas.” It appears again in Molinos’s memorandum opposing the Lamas’
    motion to dismiss for lack of subject matter jurisdiction. In both cases, the district
    court refused to address this issue because it was not raised earlier.
    43
    With the issue absent from Molinos’s amended complaint, or any other
    court submission, Molinos needed to move to amend the complaint under Rule
    15(b) to add the agency theory. It did not do so—either orally at trial or via a
    paper motion. We will therefore follow the district court’s lead and refuse to
    consider the merits of Molinos’s agency theory. Having rejected Molinos’s claims
    on appeal, we now move to the issues raised in Oscar Sr.’s appeal.
    IV.
    The Lamas filed a separate appeal, contesting an evidentiary ruling and
    liability on both counts. As laid out in part II, Carlos and Oscar Jr. are no longer
    parties to this action. They must therefore be removed from the district court’s
    judgment and Count V, the FDUPTA count against only Carlos and Oscar Jr.,
    must be dismissed.
    The remaining issues impact Oscar Sr.’s liability regarding the Count I
    breach of contract action. The Lamas first fault the district court for admitting
    statements made by Oscar Sr. and Carlos during purported settlement negotiations
    in 2004 and 2006, violating Evidence Rule 408. They also claim that, this error
    notwithstanding, the evidence at trial was insufficient to prove that Mejia, the
    Lamas’ currency broker, had authority to bind Oscar Sr. to the transaction. We
    address each argument in turn.
    44
    A.
    Oscar Sr. first argues that the district court improperly admitted evidence of
    settlement discussions between him and Molinos, in violation of Evidence Rule
    408. “We review a district court’s ruling on the admissibility of evidence for
    abuse of discretion, and evidentiary rulings will be overturned only if the moving
    party establishes that the ruling resulted in a “substantial prejudicial effect.”
    Piamba Cortes v. Am. Airlines, Inc., 
    177 F.3d 1272
    , 1305–06 (11th Cir. 1999)
    (citations omitted).
    After Molinos learned that the Lamas’ checks had bounced, the parties met
    to discuss the issue in August, September, and October of 2004, and again in
    2006. At these discussions, the Lamas acknowledged the validity of the debt and
    the amount of the debt.23
    The evidence at trial showed that Oscar Sr. was present at one of the
    meetings in 200424 and again in 2006. Molinos’s witnesses testified that, during
    23
    At the close of the 2004 negotiations, Carlos signed a promissory note, a “pague notorial,”
    acknowledging that he was personally responsible for the debt. The promissory note was also the subject
    of the Lamas’ evidentiary challenge, but, because it does not pertain to Oscar Sr., we will not discuss it
    here.
    24
    Mejia testified that, after the checks bounced, he met with Oscar Sr., and that at this meeting,
    Oscar Sr. acknowledged that he was personally liable for the debt. It is not clear whether this discussion
    occurred in the context of the purported settlement negotiations or if this was merely a private discussion
    between Mejia and Oscar Sr. We assume for the sake of argument that this discussion took place in the
    context of settlement negotiations; otherwise, Evidence Rule 408 would not come into play.
    45
    these meetings, Oscar Sr. acknowledged that the debt was personal to him.25
    Carlos, a frequent presence in these meetings, also acknowledged that the Lama
    family was liable for the debt; according to one witness, Carlos’s references to his
    family included Oscar Sr. Molinos sought to use this evidence to prove that it was
    the Lamas personally, including Oscar Sr., and not Chipstek or Expertek, that were
    parties to the contract.
    The Lamas moved in limine to exclude any evidence of these talks. Styling
    them “settlement negotiations,” they sought to exclude these conversations under
    Evidence Rule 408. The court denied this motion, ruling that settlement
    negotiations would be admissible as circumstantial evidence to prove that the
    Lamas were parties to the contract, but not as an admission of liability.
    Furthermore, the court ruled that these discussions were not covered under
    Evidence Rule 408's proscriptions because neither the validity nor the amount of
    Molinos’s claim was ever in dispute during these negotiations.26
    Molinos’s trial witnesses testified to statements made during the purported
    settlement negotiations. The court gave the jury this limiting instruction:
    25
    Oscar Sr. also testified at trial and denied that he ever acknowledged the debt as personal.
    26
    The motion in limine also sought to exclude evidence of side litigation between the parties in
    the Dominican Republic. The court excluded any settlement negotiations regarding that litigation, but
    distinguished between the those discussions and the 2004 and 2006 discussions described above.
    46
    You’re going to hear evidence of meetings which occurred
    after the checks allegedly were returned for insufficient funds or
    because the account was closed.
    That evidence is not admitted for the purpose of establishing an
    agreement on the part of the Lamas that they owed the debt, but it is
    admissible for other purposes; for instance, for you to determine with
    whom Molinos had an agreement, if anyone, with respect to the
    currency exchange and with respect to, for instance, whether there is
    any legal distinction that can be made between the Lamas themselves
    and the corporations with which they were involved.
    The court clarified this order: “They can consider the evidence, though for the
    purpose of determining who were the parties to the currency exchange agreement
    and whether or not there is a legal distinction which can be made between the
    Lamas and Globaltek and these other corporations.”
    Evidence Rule 408 covers the admissibility of evidence of “compromise and
    offers to compromise”:
    (a) Prohibited uses. Evidence of the following is not admissible on
    behalf of any party, when offered to prove liability for, invalidity of,
    or amount of a claim that was disputed as to validity or amount, or to
    impeach through a prior inconsistent statement or contradiction:
    (1) furnishing or offering or promising to furnish—or
    accepting or offering or promising to accept—a valuable
    consideration in compromising or attempting to
    compromise the claim; and
    (2) conduct or statements made in compromise
    negotiations regarding the claim, except when offered in
    a criminal case and the negotiations related to a claim by
    a public office or agency in the exercise of regulatory,
    investigative, or enforcement authority.
    47
    (b) Permitted uses. This rule does not require exclusion if the
    evidence is offered for purposes not prohibited by subdivision (a).
    Examples of permissible purposes include proving a witness’s bias or
    prejudice; negating a contention of undue delay; and proving an effort
    to obstruct a criminal investigation or prosecution.
    Fed. R. Evid. 408 (emphasis added).
    As the underlined text demonstrates, the claim must be disputed in some
    way before Evidence Rule 408's proscriptions take effect. See Fed. R. Evid. 408
    advisory committee’s notes (“The policy considerations which underlie the rule do
    not come into play when the effort is to induce a creditor to settle an admittedly
    due amount for a lesser sum. . . . Hence the rule requires that the claim be disputed
    as to either validity or amount.”); 2 Weinstein’s Federal Evidence § 408.06 (2d ed.
    2010) (“The [Advisory Committee’s] Note requires a careful distinction between a
    frank disclosure during the course of negotiations—such as, ‘All right, I was
    negligent. Let’s talk about damages’ (inadmissible)— and the less common
    situation in which both the validity of the claim and the amount of damages are
    admitted—‘Of course, I owe you the money, but unless you’re willing to settle for
    less, you’ll have to sue me for it’ (admissible).”); see also Preis v. Lexington Ins.
    Co., 279 F. App’x 940, 942–43 (11th Cir. 2008); Dallis v. Aetna Life Ins. Co., 
    768 F.2d 1303
    , 1306–07 (11th Cir. 1985).
    48
    The district court found that the Lamas, including Oscar Sr., did not dispute
    the debt; they acknowledged its existence and that they were liable for its
    payment. This determination is a subsidiary finding of fact under Evidence Rule
    104(a), Fed. R. Evid. 104(a) (“Preliminary questions concerning the . . . existence
    of a privilege or the admissibility of evidence shall be determined by the
    court . . . .”), and we may overturn this finding only for clear error, City of
    Tuscaloosa v. Harcros Chems., Inc., 
    158 F.3d 548
    , 556 (11th Cir. 1998). We find
    no such error here and correspondingly find that the district court did not abuse its
    discretion in admitting the purported settlement negotiations.
    B.
    Oscar Sr. also contends that Molinos did not present sufficient evidence to
    hold him liable for Mejia’s actions. The district court found that Molinos
    presented sufficient evidence to show that Oscar Sr. ratified Mejia’s actions when
    he personally acknowledged the debt to Mejia. On appeal, Oscar Sr. argues that
    Mejia had neither the apparent authority to engage in the transaction on his behalf,
    nor was there evidence that he ratified Mejia’s actions and therefore assumed
    49
    liability.27 We agree with the district court that Oscar Sr. may be liable under a
    ratification theory.28
    “Ratification of an agreement occurs where a person expressly or impliedly
    adopts an act or contract entered into in his or her behalf by another without
    authority.” Deutsche Credit Corp. v. Peninger, 
    603 So. 2d 57
    , 58 (Fla. 5th Dist.
    Ct. App. 1992) (citations omitted). The principal must have full knowledge of the
    initially unauthorized agents’ conduct and approve of that conduct. Frankenmuth
    Mut. Ins. Co. v. Magaha, 
    769 So. 2d 1012
    , 1021–22 (Fla. 2000).
    Molinos presented sufficient evidence to prove an explicit ratification. It
    presented evidence of a conversation between Mejia and Oscar Sr. during which
    Oscar Sr. committed himself to the contract. Mejia testified,
    I requested to go see Oscar Lama, Sr., the father, and he received me
    and he told me not to have any doubt whatsoever; that they would
    personally solve that problem; that I had worked with them in his
    bank, and that I was aware of his financial and moral solvency; and
    that under no circumstance would they look bad on anyone, even
    though he had to use his reserves for his old age.
    27
    Molinos’s counsel stipulated that Oscar Sr. did not grant Mejia express authority to enter the
    contract.
    28
    Oscar Sr. also contends that the ratification issue was a new theory presented for the first time
    at trial and that we cannot consider this claim because Molinos did not move to amend its complaint at
    trial under Fed. R. Civ. P. 15(b). The district court implicitly rejected this argument in its March 19,
    2009 ruling on the motion for judgment as a matter of law. From the pleadings, we see this as fairly
    presented and find no reason to disturb the district court’s judgment. As subpart 
    III.B, supra
    ,
    demonstrated, the district court was perfectly capable of preventing Molinos from arguing new theories
    raised for the first time at trial; the court’s failure to rule similarly on this issue speaks volumes.
    50
    When asked whether Oscar Sr. “indicate[d] that these checks would be made good
    personally by the Lama family,” Mejia answered in the affirmative. He again
    stated this point on cross-examination.29
    Other testimony provided circumstantial evidence for this proposition.
    Bonnelly, Molinos’s currency broker, testified that she had previously done
    business with the Lamas, including the father; she had never done business with
    Expertek or Chipstek. She testified: “Every time I do business with them, I would
    do business with the Lamas; that is, the father, Oscar, and the son, Carlos Lama.”
    She further testified that Carlos Lama indicated that the Lama family, including
    Oscar Sr., would cover the bad checks. Reynoso also testified that Oscar Sr. did
    not deny liability for the checks during the 2006 meeting. Although this fact alone
    might not have established liability, it provides yet another inference in favor of
    holding Oscar Sr. liable.
    Against this argument, Oscar Sr. claims that he cannot be liable because he
    did not accept any benefit from the contract. This argument suffers from two
    flaws, one conceptual and one factual. Conceptually, the Florida case law refers to
    acceptance of benefits to prove ratification where there is no proof of explicit
    29
    The transcript reads:
    Q. Sir, I want to focus on Oscar R. Lama for a moment, the father. Now if I understood
    your testimony yesterday, is it your testimony that he was part of this transaction?
    A. That’s what he told me.
    51
    ratification. The case Oscar Sr. cites states, “Ratification, as applied to the law of
    agency, is the adoption or affirmance by a principal of the acts of his agent, either
    expressly, as by a written act, or impliedly, as by acceptance of the benefits of the
    contract.” Spurrier v. United Bank, 
    359 So. 2d 908
    , 910 (Fla. 1st Dist. Ct. App.
    1978) (emphasis added) (citation and internal quotation marks omitted). This
    passage suggests that when, as here, the principal explicitly ratifies the agent’s
    work, the plaintiff need not prove that the principal retained an improper benefit.
    Factually, his argument also fails. Oscar Sr. claims that, because Molinos
    never introduced evidence that its funds went directly to Oscar Sr.’s bank account,
    the jury could not reasonably find that Oscar Sr. benefitted from the transaction.
    Here, Molinos fulfilled its side of the contract by writing checks payable to several
    third parties, at the direction of the Lamas’ broker, Mejia. Mejia, in turn,
    explained that the Lamas often requested that the checks be payable to their
    messengers, who would cash the checks right away; on this occasion, he believed
    that several checks were payable to these messengers. When combined with
    testimony that the Lamas were the real principals to the transaction, a jury could
    reasonably conclude that the messengers completed their tasks and transported the
    check proceeds to the Lamas, including Oscar Sr.
    V.
    52
    We AFFIRM the district court’s judgment as to Oscar Sr., but VACATE
    the judgment as to Carlos and Oscar Jr.
    SO ORDERED.
    53
    

Document Info

Docket Number: 09-11153

Filed Date: 2/24/2011

Precedential Status: Precedential

Modified Date: 10/14/2015

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