Alexis Barradas Jacome v. Attorney General United States ( 2022 )


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  •                                            PRECEDENTIAL
    UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
    FOR THE THIRD CIRCUIT
    ____________
    No. 20-2439
    ____________
    ALEXIS FERNANDO BARRADAS JACOME,
    Petitioner
    v.
    ATTORNEY GENERAL UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
    ____________
    On Petition for Review of an
    Order from the Department of Homeland Security and the
    Executive Office for Immigration Review
    (A204-796-985)
    Immigration Judge: Kuyomars Golparvar
    ____________
    Argued on April 26, 2022
    Before: HARDIMAN, NYGAARD, and FISHER, Circuit
    Judges.
    (Filed: June 30, 2022)
    Stephen F. Raiola [Argued]
    Peter St. Tienne Wolff
    Pietragallo Gordon Alfano Bosick & Raspanti
    301 Grant Street
    One Oxford Centre, 38th Floor
    Pittsburgh, PA 15219
    Counsel for Petitioner
    Brian M. Boynton
    John S. Hogan
    Todd J. Cochran
    Craig A. Newell, Jr. [Argued]
    U.S. Department of Justice
    Office of Immigration Litigation
    P.O. Box 878
    Ben Franklin Station
    Washington, DC 20044
    Counsel for Respondent
    ___________
    OPINION OF THE COURT
    ____________
    HARDIMAN, Circuit Judge.
    Alexis Fernando Barradas-Jacome filed this petition for
    review challenging his expedited removal by the Department
    of Homeland Security (DHS) based on his Pennsylvania
    conviction for receiving stolen property. The petition raises
    two issues of precedential import, one jurisdictional and one
    substantive. For the reasons that follow, we hold that we have
    jurisdiction to review Barradas-Jacome’s legal argument in the
    first instance because DHS’s expedited removal procedures do
    not allow aliens to challenge the legal basis for their removal.
    2
    We also hold that Barradas-Jacome’s state conviction is an
    aggravated felony under the Immigration and Nationality Act
    (INA), 
    8 U.S.C. § 1101
    (a)(43)(G). So we will deny his petition
    for review. 1
    I
    A native and citizen of Mexico, Barradas-Jacome
    entered the United States on a tourist visa in 2004 when he was
    six years old. He received approval to remain under the
    Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals program in October
    2013, but failed to renew his DACA status after it expired. In
    October 2019, Barradas-Jacome pleaded guilty to receiving
    stolen property, in violation of 
    18 Pa. Cons. Stat. § 3925
    (a), 2
    and was sentenced to 12–24 months’ imprisonment.
    In January 2020, DHS initiated expedited removal
    proceedings against Barradas-Jacome by serving him with a
    Notice of Intent to Issue a Final Administrative Removal Order
    (FARO). The Notice of Intent—one side of DHS Form I-851—
    informed Barradas-Jacome that he was charged with being
    deportable under the INA as an alien “convicted of an
    aggravated felony” because he had been convicted of receiving
    1
    The Court appointed Stephen F. Raiola of Pietragallo Gordon
    Alfano Bosick & Raspanti to represent Barradas-Jacome pro
    bono in this appeal. Mr. Raiola has ably discharged his
    responsibilities.
    2
    Barradas-Jacome also pleaded guilty to (1) resisting arrest, 
    18 Pa. Cons. Stat. § 5104
    ; (2) use or possession of drug
    paraphernalia, 35 P.S. § 780-113(a)(32); and (3) carrying a
    firearm without a license, 
    18 Pa. Cons. Stat. § 6106
    (a)(1).
    3
    stolen property. App. 30 (citing 
    8 U.S.C. § 1227
    (a)(2)(A)(iii)
    and § 1101(a)(43)(G)). The Notice of Intent also advised
    Barradas-Jacome that he would be removed under expedited
    procedures, “without a hearing before an Immigration Judge,”
    and indicated that he had ten days to “respond to the [removal]
    charges in writing to the [DHS] address provided on the other
    side of this form.” 
    3 App. 30
    .
    The same day, Barradas-Jacome responded by filling
    out the reverse side of Form I-851 as instructed. The form’s
    response side includes a series of checkboxes where an alien
    can state whether he contests removal and, if so, the nature of
    his challenge. Barradas-Jacome checked two boxes, indicating
    (1) “I Wish to Contest and/or Request Withholding of
    Removal,” and (2) “I request withholding or deferral of
    removal to Mexico.”
    3
    The form further instructs: “In your response you may:
    request, for good cause, an extension of time; rebut the charges
    stated above (with supporting evidence); request an
    opportunity to review the government’s evidence; admit
    deportability; designate the country to which you choose to be
    removed in the event that a final order of removal is issued . . .
    ; and/or, if you fear persecution . . . or, if you fear torture in any
    specific country or countries, you may request withholding of
    removal under [the INA or the Convention Against Torture].”
    App. 30.
    
    4 App. 31
    . On his Form I-851 response, Barradas-Jacome did not
    indicate that he believed his Pennsylvania receiving stolen
    property conviction is not an “aggravated felony.”
    After reviewing Barradas-Jacome’s I-851 response and
    administrative record, DHS issued a FARO in February 2020.
    See 
    8 U.S.C. § 1228
    (b) (expedited deportation for “aliens who
    are not permanent residents” and who are convicted of an
    aggravated felony). Because Barradas-Jacome requested
    withholding of removal, he obtained a reasonable fear
    interview with an asylum officer who concluded that Barradas-
    Jacome had not established a reasonable fear of persecution or
    torture. Barradas-Jacome appealed that determination to an IJ,
    5
    who held a hearing and concurred in the asylum officer’s
    negative reasonable fear determination. The IJ’s final order
    specified that no administrative appeal was available, but that
    Barradas-Jacome could seek Third Circuit review within 30
    days. See 
    8 U.S.C. § 1252
    ; 
    8 C.F.R. § 1208.31
    (g)(1). Barradas-
    Jacome timely petitioned this Court. 4
    II
    Under the INA, our jurisdiction to review final orders
    of removal is circumscribed. 
    8 U.S.C. § 1252
    (a)(1). We lack
    authority to review “any final order of removal against an alien
    who is removable by reason of having committed” an
    aggravated felony. 
    8 U.S.C. § 1252
    (a)(2)(C). For those
    removal orders, our jurisdiction is limited to “constitutional
    claims or questions of law” raised in the petition. 
    8 U.S.C. § 1252
    (a)(2)(D); Quinteros v. Att’y Gen., 
    945 F.3d 772
    , 780
    (3d Cir. 2019). And even then, we may review a removal order
    only if “the alien has exhausted all administrative remedies
    available . . . as of right.” 
    8 U.S.C. § 1252
    (d)(1).
    4
    Barradas-Jacome simultaneously attempted to appeal the IJ’s
    order to the Board of Immigration Appeals (BIA), specifically
    challenging DHS’s “improper aggravated felony holding.”
    Supp App. 3. The BIA promptly rejected his appeal, noting that
    it “does not have the authority to review reasonable fear
    determinations made by an Immigration Judge.” Supp. App. 5
    (citing 
    8 C.F.R. § 1208.31
    (g)(1)). The BIA did not
    acknowledge Barradas-Jacome’s challenge to DHS’s
    aggravated felony determination. Barradas-Jacome moved for
    reconsideration, raising again his “challenge to his status as an
    aggravated felon.” Supp. App. 7–8. The BIA again rejected
    that appeal for lack of authority.
    6
    When Barradas-Jacome responded to DHS’s Notice of
    Intent, he did not contest the agency’s determination that his
    Pennsylvania conviction for receiving stolen property is an
    aggravated felony. Yet Barradas-Jacome argues that he
    exhausted his administrative remedies because DHS’s
    expedited removal procedures allow him to contest only the
    factual basis of his removal, not to raise legal arguments (e.g.,
    challenging the classification of his conviction as an
    aggravated felony). Barradas-Jacome thus claims that we have
    jurisdiction to consider his challenge in the first instance on his
    petition for review.
    “The question of whether DHS’s expedited removal
    procedures provide an alien with the opportunity to challenge
    the legal basis of his or her removal—and thus whether we
    have jurisdiction to hear such a challenge when a petitioner
    fails to raise it before DHS—is one that has split our sister
    circuits.” Etienne v. Lynch, 
    813 F.3d 135
    , 138 (4th Cir. 2015);
    compare 
    id.
     (jurisdiction lies), and Valdiviez-Hernandez v.
    Holder, 
    739 F.3d 184
    , 187–88 (5th Cir. 2013) (per curiam)
    (same), with Malu v. Att’y Gen., 
    764 F.3d 1282
    , 1289 (11th Cir.
    2014) (no jurisdiction). 5 We now join the Fourth and Fifth
    Circuits and hold that DHS has not made legal challenges
    available to aliens during expedited removal proceedings. So
    the INA’s exhaustion requirement does not deprive us of
    5
    As the Fourth Circuit observed in Etienne, the Seventh Circuit
    has “arguably come out on both sides of the issue.” 813 F.3d
    at 138 n.2; compare Eke v. Mukasey, 
    512 F.3d 372
    , 377–78
    (7th Cir. 2008) (jurisdiction lies), with Fonseca–Sanchez v.
    Gonzales, 
    484 F.3d 439
    , 444–45 (7th Cir. 2007) (no
    jurisdiction).
    7
    jurisdiction to consider Barradas-Jacome’s legal challenge for
    the first time on his petition for review.
    A
    Before determining our jurisdiction, we first describe
    DHS’s expedited removal process. The INA declares that
    “[a]ny alien who is convicted of an aggravated felony at any
    time after admission is deportable.” 
    8 U.S.C. § 1227
    (a)(2)(A)(iii). Before an alien can be deported on this
    ground, he generally must be afforded a hearing before an IJ,
    where he may contest the factual or legal basis of his
    removability. See 
    8 U.S.C. §§ 1229
    , 1229a; 
    8 C.F.R. § 1240.10
    (c). But for aliens like Barradas-Jacome who have
    not been lawfully admitted to the United States for permanent
    residence, the INA authorizes an expedited removal process
    without a hearing before an IJ. See 
    8 U.S.C. § 1228
    (b); 
    8 C.F.R. § 238.1
    (a). A DHS officer—who need not be an
    attorney—presides over this expedited process. See 
    id.
    DHS initiates expedited removal proceedings by
    serving an alien with a Form I-851 Notice of Intent. See 
    id.
    § 238.1(b)(1), (b)(2)(i). The Notice of Intent must (1) notify
    the alien of the “allegations of fact and conclusions of law”
    supporting DHS’s preliminary determination that the alien is
    removable; (2) inform the alien of DHS’s “intent to issue a . . .
    Final Administrative Removal Order, without a hearing before
    an [IJ]”; and (3) advise the alien, among other things, that he
    “may rebut the charges within 10 calendar days after service.”
    Id. § 238.1(b)(2)(i). The Notice of Intent sent to Barradas-
    Jacome conforms to these regulations.
    Once DHS has served an alien with the Notice of Intent,
    the alien must choose whether to respond. Form I–851 offers a
    8
    series of checkboxes on the back of the form. Barradas-
    Jacome’s completed Form I–851, replicated above, shows the
    range of possible responses. App. 31.
    If the alien chooses to respond, he first decides whether
    to contest deportability. To contest deportability, he must
    check the box that states, “I contest my deportability because:
    (Attach any supporting documentation).” Id. Indented beneath
    that checkbox are four more checkboxes, only three of which
    logically complete the statement. And those options present the
    following three factual challenges to the basis of expedited
    removal: (1) “I am a citizen or national of the United States”;
    (2) “I am a lawful permanent resident of the United States”;
    and (3) “I was not convicted of the criminal offense described
    in allegation number 6 above.” 6 Id. The fourth checkbox, found
    directly below and aligned with the three factual challenges,
    reads “I am attaching documents in support of my rebuttal and
    request for further review.” Id. Critically for purposes of this
    case, the I-851 response form offers no specific checkbox for
    an alien who wishes to challenge the legal basis of his removal.
    If the alien contests deportability, the DHS officer must
    determine whether his deportability is nonetheless “established
    by clear, convincing, and unequivocal evidence in the record
    of proceeding.” 
    8 C.F.R. § 238.1
    (d)(2)(i). If so, the officer
    “shall issue . . . a Final Administrative Removal Order.” 
    Id.
    6
    The Notice of Intent includes six “allegations” that undergird
    DHS’s expedited removal determination. App. 30. Allegation
    “number 6” provides the date, court, and statute of
    conviction—in this case, 
    18 Pa. Cons. Stat. § 3925
    (a)—as well
    as the term of imprisonment imposed. App. 30–31. So the
    “criminal offense described in allegation number 6” is not an
    INA charge to be contested.
    9
    But if the “officer finds that the record of proceeding, including
    the alien’s timely rebuttal, raises a genuine issue of material
    fact regarding the preliminary findings,” that officer may either
    (1) “obtain additional evidence from any source, including the
    alien,” or (2) initiate full removal proceedings before an IJ. 
    Id.
    § 238.1(d)(2)(ii)(A). If the officer “finds, after considering all
    additional evidence, that deportability is established by clear,
    convincing, and unequivocal evidence,” the officer “shall issue
    . . . a Final Administrative Removal Order.” Id.
    § 238.1(d)(2)(ii)(B). But if the officer “finds that the alien is
    not amenable to [expedited] removal,” the officer “shall
    terminate the expedited proceedings . . . and shall, where
    appropriate, cause to be issued a notice to appear for the
    purpose of initiating removal proceedings before an [IJ].” Id.
    § 238.1(d)(2)(iii).
    B
    Having explained the essential attributes of the
    expedited removal process, we turn to the question of our
    jurisdiction over Barradas-Jacome’s petition. The parties
    dispute how to interpret DHS regulations governing expedited
    removal procedures, specifically 
    8 C.F.R. § 238.1
    (c)–(d). The
    Government makes two points. First, the regulations “contain
    no limiting language that would bar the alien from raising—or
    DHS considering—legal challenges to the charge of
    removability.” Gov’t Br. 15–16 (citing 
    8 C.F.R. § 238.1
    (c)).
    Second, the regulations authorize a DHS officer presiding over
    expedited removal proceedings to consider an alien’s legal
    challenge to removability. So the Government argues that
    aliens must raise legal challenges or forfeit them for failing to
    exhaust administrative remedies.
    10
    Barradas-Jacome disagrees on both fronts. First, the
    “plain text of 
    8 CFR § 238.1
    (c) . . . permits the alien to rebut
    the allegations supporting the charge but not the legal charge
    itself.” Barradas-Jacome Br. 21. Second, the regulations do not
    authorize the DHS officer to consider legal challenges; they
    merely recognize that the officer may be unable to establish the
    factual basis for an alien’s removability by “clear, convincing,
    unequivocal evidence,” leaving the alien “not amenable” to
    expedited removal (but potentially amenable to ordinary
    removal proceedings before an IJ). Reply Br. 5–6 (citing 
    8 C.F.R. § 238.1
    (d)(2)).
    The Fourth and Fifth Circuits agree with Barradas-
    Jacome. In Valdiviez-Hernandez, the Fifth Circuit held that
    “the relevant statutes and corresponding regulations . . . did not
    provide [the alien] with an avenue to challenge the legal
    conclusion that he does not meet the definition of an alien
    subject to expedited removal.” 739 F.3d at 187. While
    acknowledging that the Notice of Intent “included conclusions
    of law,” the court reasoned that “the response process is geared
    toward resolving only issues of fact.” Id. (citing 
    8 C.F.R. § 238.1
    (d)(2)). In Etienne, the Fourth Circuit “conclude[d] that
    the Fifth Circuit’s approach . . . is more consistent with the
    language and structure of the expedited removal regulations
    . . . [and] Form I-851.” 813 F.3d at 141.
    The Eleventh Circuit agrees with the Government’s
    approach. In Malu, that court underscored that the relevant
    regulations require the Notice of Intent to “include both
    ‘allegations of fact and conclusions of law’ that the alien may
    rebut.” 764 F.3d at 1288 (quoting 
    8 C.F.R. § 238.1
    (b)(2)(i)).
    The court read 
    8 C.F.R. § 238.1
    (d)(2)(iii) to allow “an officer
    [to] transfer removal proceedings to an immigration judge if
    the alien objects to the notice of removal on the ground that she
    11
    is ‘not amenable’ to the expedited removal proceedings.” 
    Id.
    (“Whether an alien is amenable to expedited removal
    proceedings could involve either an issue of law or fact.”).
    Because “it would be nonsensical to limit the alien’s rebuttal
    to allegations of fact, but save for later any rebuttal to
    conclusions of law,” the court held that “an alien must exhaust
    all administrative remedies by rebutting the charges—
    including the conclusion of law that she is an aggravated
    felon—before the Department.” 
    Id.
     We find the Fourth and
    Fifth Circuits’ reasoning more persuasive.
    1
    When read in context with the INA and relevant
    regulations, the expedited removal regulations strongly
    suggest that only factual challenges to an alien’s removability
    may be raised in expedited proceedings. The Government is
    correct that DHS regulations require the Notice of Intent to
    “include allegations of fact and conclusions of law.” 
    8 C.F.R. § 238.1
    (b)(2)(i). But the regulations on an alien’s response to
    the Notice of Intent allow for “rebutting the allegations
    supporting the charge,” not—at least, not explicitly—any
    conclusions of law, 
    id.
     § 238.1(c)(1). The contrast between
    what is required of the Government and what is expected in
    response from the alien is telling. Had DHS wanted to
    adjudicate legal issues at this stage, it could have easily
    required aliens to do so.
    The regulations governing the presiding DHS officer’s
    determination also suggest that the proceedings implicate
    factual, not legal, challenges. See Valdiviez-Hernandez, 739
    F.3d at 187 (citing 
    8 C.F.R. § 238.1
    (d)(2)). If the alien “raises
    a genuine issue of material fact,” the officer may gather
    additional evidence. 
    8 C.F.R. § 238.1
    (d)(2)(ii)(A). If the new
    12
    evidence enables the officer to conclude deportability by
    “clear, convincing, and unequivocal evidence,” he must then
    issue a Final Administrative Removal Order. 
    Id.
    § 238.1(d)(2)(ii)(B). The regulations provide the DHS officer
    no guidance about legal issues. Once again, that silence is
    telling.
    Nor are expedited removal proceedings structured to
    handle legal challenges. The DHS officer need not have any
    legal training, much less be a lawyer. See 
    8 C.F.R. § 238.1
    (a).
    The Government counters that the officer’s ability to transfer
    proceedings to an IJ cures any structural deficiency in his
    ability to consider legal challenges. See 
    id.
     § 238.1(d)(2)(iii)
    (requiring the DHS officer to transfer proceedings to an IJ
    “where appropriate”); Malu, 764 F.3d at 1288. We disagree.
    The most reasonable reading, in view of the broader regulatory
    scheme, is that transfers to IJs should occur when a “genuine
    issue of material fact” prevents the DHS officer from finding
    deportability by “clear, convincing, and unequivocal
    evidence.” 
    8 C.F.R. § 238.1
    (d)(2)(ii) (emphasis added).
    Though the deciding DHS officer could not “unequivocally”
    find that the alien is removable, 
    id.,
     an IJ might still be able to
    conclude deportability, since he is not held to the same high
    evidentiary standard as the DHS officer. When an IJ orders
    removal after holding a hearing, the evidence must be “clear
    and convincing,” but it need not be “unequivocal.” Compare
    
    id.
     § 238.1(d)(2)(i), (ii)(B), with 8 U.S.C. § 1229a(c)(3)(A).
    2
    The regulations’ silence about legal challenges also
    suggests that such challenges are not contemplated in
    expedited removal proceedings. DHS practice—i.e., the form
    13
    it uses to facilitate expedited removal proceedings—implies
    the same.
    DHS Form I-851, which details the steps that aliens in
    expedited removal proceedings may take to respond to
    allegations against them, offers no clear opportunity to raise a
    legal challenge. The Notice of Intent side of Form I-851 points
    toward “the other side of this form,” where it indicates that an
    alien has ten days to “respond to the [removal] charges in
    writing.” App. 30. Despite noting that an alien “may . . . rebut
    the charges stated above (with supporting evidence),” the
    form’s “other side” limits his response. App. 30. It contains
    several checkboxes for an alien to lodge factual challenges to
    his removal, but offers no checkbox for lodging any specific
    legal challenges, a legal challenge in general, or other
    unenumerated challenges.
    The Government relies on Form I-851’s fourth
    checkbox, which states: “I am attaching documents in support
    of my rebuttal and request for further review.” App. 31. We are
    hard-pressed to think of a more opaque way to put an alien on
    notice that DHS intends him to raise a legal challenge in
    response to the Notice of Intent. Read plainly, that checkbox
    does not create a procedure for aliens to raise any other
    challenges—including legal challenges—to their removal
    charges. The phrase “my rebuttal” appears to refer directly to
    the three factual challenges listed immediately above that
    checkbox. Id. Given the language and structure of Form I-851,
    we cannot say that DHS’s expedited removal procedures offer
    an alien the opportunity to challenge the legal basis of his
    removal; indeed, Form I-851 “expressly prompts aliens to raise
    only factual challenges to removal.” Etienne, 813 F.3d at 142.
    When read alongside DHS regulations governing expedited
    removal proceedings, we hold that aliens convicted of an
    14
    aggravated felony do not have “an avenue to challenge the
    legal conclusion” that they are subject to expedited removal.
    Valdiviez-Hernandez, 739 F.3d at 187; see also Woodford v.
    Ngo, 
    548 U.S. 81
    , 90 (2006) (“[E]xhaustion of administrative
    remedies . . . ‘means using all steps that the agency holds out.’”
    (citation omitted)). 7
    C
    The Government disagrees with this conclusion. It
    emphasizes that the Notice of Intent includes “not just
    allegations, but also a ‘charge,’ which appears [on Form I-851]
    as the legal provision under which DHS believes [an alien] is
    removable.” Gov’t Br. 14–15; see 
    8 C.F.R. § 238.1
    (b)(2)(i). In
    this case, the “charge” stated that Barradas-Jacome was
    deportable under 
    8 U.S.C. § 1227
    (a)(2)(A)(iii) as an alien
    convicted of an “aggravated felony,” as defined in 
    8 U.S.C. § 1101
    (a)(43)(G). App. 30. And the Notice of Intent informed
    Barradas-Jacome that he could (1) “respond to the above
    charge[] in writing” and (2) “rebut the charge[] stated above
    (with supporting evidence).” App. 30; see 
    8 C.F.R. § 238.1
    (b)(2)(i). The Government thus argues: “the [Notice of
    7
    This discussion should make plain the limits of our holding.
    Nothing in our opinion prevents DHS from revising the I-851
    response form to clarify that DHS wishes to require aliens to
    raise legal challenges in expedited removal proceedings. Such
    a revision would provide clear notice to aliens of their right to
    raise legal arguments in a manner that the present response
    form does not. The opportunity to raise a legal challenge would
    then become one of the “steps that the agency holds out,” an
    administrative remedy that must be exhausted. Woodford, 
    548 U.S. at 90
    ; cf. Etienne, 813 F.3d at 142.
    15
    Intent] provided Barradas with the ability to rebut the legal
    basis of the removal charge, and the regulations provided the
    deciding officer with a mechanism for considering and
    addressing such a challenge.” Gov’t Br. 15; see 
    8 C.F.R. § 238.1
    (d)(2)(iii) (DHS officer may conclude that the alien is
    “not amenable” to expedited removal and transfer to regular
    removal proceedings).
    But were legal challenges available to Barradas-Jacome
    during expedited removal proceedings? It is true that neither
    the regulations nor Form I-851 expressly precludes Barradas-
    Jacome from raising, or DHS from considering, a legal
    challenge to his charge of removability. But that does not mean
    a remedy was available. We have previously expounded upon
    remedies available in 
    8 U.S.C. § 1252
    (d)(1). An administrative
    remedy is available as of right if “(1) the alien’s claim was
    within the jurisdiction of the [agency] to consider and
    implicated agency expertise, and (2) the agency was capable of
    granting the remedy sought by the alien.” Bonhometre v.
    Gonzales, 
    414 F.3d 442
    , 447 (3d Cir. 2005) (citations omitted);
    see also Nkomo v. Att’y Gen., 
    986 F.3d 268
    , 272 (3d Cir. 2021)
    (describing our “liberal” exhaustion policy: “so long as an
    immigration petitioner makes some effort, however
    insufficient, to place the [agency] on notice of a
    straightforward issue being raised on appeal, he meets the
    exhaustion requirement” (cleaned up)).
    Since we decided Bonhometre, the Supreme Court has
    considered the Prison Litigation Reform Act’s exhaustion
    provision (42 U.S.C. § 1997e(a)). In Ross v. Blake, 
    578 U.S. 632
     (2016), the Court held that an administrative remedy is
    “unavailable” when (1) “it operates as a simple dead end—with
    officers unable or consistently unwilling to provide any relief,”
    
    id. at 643
    ; or (2) “an administrative scheme [is] so opaque that
    16
    it becomes, practically speaking, incapable of use,” 
    id.
     The
    INA’s exhaustion provision seems even more favorable to
    petitioners, as it requires exhaustion of remedies “available . . .
    as of right,” not just “available” remedies, as in the PLRA.
    Compare 
    8 U.S.C. § 1252
    (d)(1), with 42 U.S.C. § 1997e(a).
    Under this definition, it is hard to see how legal
    challenges made by aliens in expedited removal proceedings
    could reasonably be considered anything but a “dead end.” In
    many appellate cases involving legal challenges to DHS
    “aggravated felony” determinations, aliens in expedited
    proceedings consistently received Final Administrative
    Removal Orders—no matter if, or how, they responded on
    Form I-851. See, e.g., Quinteros, 945 F.3d at 781 (although
    alien checked box indicating “I Wish to Contest and/or to
    Request Withholding of Removal,” BIA concluded alien could
    not challenge whether conviction was aggravated felony in
    expedited proceedings); Victoria-Faustino v. Sessions, 
    865 F.3d 869
    , 871–72 (7th Cir. 2017) (alien checked box indicating
    desire to “Contest and/or Request Withholding of Removal”);
    Etienne, 813 F.3d at 137–38 (alien checked boxes indicating “I
    Wish to Contest,” “I contest my deportability because,” and
    even “I am attaching documents in support of my rebuttal and
    request further review”); Malu, 764 F.3d at 1287 (did not
    complete I-851 response form); Valdiviez-Hernandez, 739
    F.3d at 186 (did not complete I-851 response form); Escoto-
    Castillo v. Napolitano, 
    658 F.3d 864
    , 865 (8th Cir. 2011)
    (checked box indicating admitted charges and removable);
    Graham v. Mukasey, 
    519 F.3d 546
    , 548–49 (6th Cir. 2008)
    (alien did not complete I-851 response form, but attorney
    called DHS indicating that he would contest “crime of
    violence” classification); Flores-Ledezma v. Gonzales, 
    415 F.3d 375
    , 378–79 (5th Cir. 2005). In Flores-Ledezma, “counsel
    17
    [even] sent a letter to the INS formally contesting the charges”
    against his alien client, requesting that he “be placed in
    ‘general’ removal proceedings under . . . 8 U.S.C. § 1229a.”
    
    415 F.3d at 378
    . Less than two weeks later, before counsel
    received any response, the Final Administrative Removal
    Order issued. 
    Id.
     at 378–79.
    The Government’s argument—that nothing bars
    Barradas-Jacome from challenging the removal charge against
    him or prevents DHS from considering it—is difficult to square
    with the empirical reality of these cases. 8 Finding legal
    challenges unavailable on his I-851 response form, Barradas-
    Jacome tried to challenge DHS’s aggravated felony
    determination before the BIA, both during the appeal of his
    withholding of removal decision and upon his motion for
    reconsideration. The BIA rejected each appeal for lack of
    authority. If, among the legion of expedited removal cases,
    DHS can’t cite a single favorable response to a legal challenge
    by an alien in expedited removal proceedings, how can we
    conclude that “the agency was capable of granting the remedy
    sought by the alien”? Bonhometre, 
    414 F.3d at 447
    ; cf. Ross,
    578 U.S. at 642 (“[T]he ordinary meaning of the word
    ‘available’ is ‘capable of use for the accomplishment of a
    purpose,’ and that which ‘is accessible or may be obtained.’”
    8
    At oral argument, the Government pointed to Bedolla-Zarate
    v. Sessions, 
    892 F.3d 1137
     (10th Cir. 2018), in support of its
    assertion that aliens in expedited removal proceedings can
    raise legal challenges before DHS. But Bedolla-Zarate did not
    discuss precisely when, or exactly how, the alien challenged
    his aggravated felony conviction, see 
    id. at 1139
    ; and the Tenth
    Circuit simply asserted its jurisdiction over the FARO, without
    explaining the basis of its review, see 
    id. at 1138
    .
    18
    (cleaned up)). Because we find that legal challenges are
    unavailable to aliens during expedited removal proceedings,
    we conclude that Barradas-Jacome did not fail to exhaust his
    administrative remedies before DHS. We therefore have
    jurisdiction to consider his challenge to DHS’s aggravated
    felony determination.
    III
    We now address whether Barradas-Jacome is
    deportable because of his criminal conviction. Specifically,
    Barradas-Jacome challenges DHS’s determination that his
    state conviction for receiving stolen property is an aggravated
    felony under the INA. See 
    18 Pa. Cons. Stat. § 3925
    (a); 
    8 U.S.C. § 1227
    (a)(2)(A)(iii). We review this question of law de
    novo. See Mateo v. Att’y Gen., 
    870 F.3d 228
    , 231 (3d Cir.
    2017). We apply the categorical approach to determine
    whether Barradas-Jacome’s statute of conviction “fits” the
    generic “receipt of stolen property” definition contemplated
    under 
    8 U.S.C. § 1101
    (a)(43)(G). Lewin v. Att’y Gen., 
    885 F.3d 165
    , 167 (3d Cir. 2018) (citations omitted). Barradas-Jacome’s
    “actual conduct is irrelevant to the inquiry,” and we must
    “presume that the conviction rested upon nothing more than
    the least of the acts criminalized under the state statute.”
    Mellouli v. Lynch, 
    575 U.S. 798
    , 805 (2015) (cleaned up). But
    “our focus on the minimum conduct criminalized by the state
    statute is not an invitation to apply ‘legal imagination’ to the
    state offense; there must be ‘a realistic probability, not a
    theoretical possibility, that the State would apply its statute to
    conduct that falls outside the generic definition of a crime.’”
    Moncrieffe v. Holder, 
    569 U.S. 184
    , 191 (2013) (citation
    omitted).
    19
    Pennsylvania’s statutory definition of receiving stolen
    property mirrors the Model Penal Code: “A person is guilty of
    theft if he intentionally receives, retains, or disposes of
    movable property of another knowing that it has been stolen,
    or believing that it has probably been stolen, unless the
    property is received, retained, or disposed with intent to restore
    it to the owner.” 
    18 Pa. Cons. Stat. § 3925
    (a); see M.P.C.
    § 223.6.
    The INA includes within its defined list of aggravated
    felonies “a theft offense (including receipt of stolen property)
    . . . for which the term of imprisonment [is] at least one year.”
    
    8 U.S.C. § 1101
    (a)(43)(G). The “INA itself does not define
    ‘theft’ or ‘receipt of stolen property,’” so we use the generic
    definition: “the ‘taking of property or an exercise of control
    over property without consent with the criminal intent to
    deprive the owner of rights and benefits of ownership, even if
    such deprivation is less than total or permanent.’” Lewin, 885
    F.3d at 168 (quoting Gonzalez v. Duenas-Alvarez, 
    549 U.S. 183
    , 189 (2007)). Under the INA, “‘receipt of stolen property’
    is not merely a subset of ‘theft’ as that term is used in [
    8 U.S.C. § 1101
    (a)(43)(G)], because each can be considered to be a
    distinct and separate offense.” In re Cardiel-Guerrero, 
    25 I. & N. Dec. 12
    , 14 (2009) (“[A] thief may not receive property
    from himself.”); see also In re Enrique Alday-Dominguez,
    Respondent, 
    27 I. & N. Dec. 48
    , 49–50 (2017) (reaffirming In
    re Cardiel-Guerrero).
    Barradas-Jacome was convicted of receiving stolen
    property in violation of 
    18 Pa. Cons. Stat. § 3925
    (a). Because
    the elements of that crime fit the generic definition of receiving
    stolen property under 
    8 U.S.C. § 1101
    (a)(43)(G), it qualifies as
    an aggravated felony under the INA.
    20
    A
    Barradas-Jacome argues that the mens rea element of 
    18 Pa. Cons. Stat. § 3925
    (a) is categorically insufficient to
    constitute an aggravated felony under 
    8 U.S.C. § 1101
    (a)(43)(G). The generic definition of “theft offense”—
    the relevant comparator for the Pennsylvania statute—requires
    actual knowledge or belief that the property was stolen. Lewin,
    885 F.3d at 168–69. But according to Barradas-Jacome, the
    Pennsylvania offense is broader because “trial courts in
    Pennsylvania have both accepted guilty pleas and sustained
    convictions for . . . receipt of stolen property based only on a
    mens rea of ‘reason to believe’ or ‘should have known.’”
    Barradas-Jacome Br. 32.
    We recently confronted an identical claim about New
    Jersey’s receiving stolen property statute in Lewin and
    concluded that “the mens rea element of New Jersey’s
    receiving stolen property statute is categorically sufficient to
    constitute an aggravated felony under § 1101(a)(43)(G).” 885
    F.3d at 169–70. The statutory mens rea requirement for
    receiving stolen property is nearly identical in New Jersey and
    Pennsylvania, since both definitions are patterned on the
    Model Penal Code. Compare 
    18 Pa. Cons. Stat. § 3925
    (a)
    (“knowing that it has been stolen, or believing that it has
    probably been stolen”), with N.J. Stat. Ann. § 2C:20-7(a)
    (“knowing that it has been stolen, or believing that it is
    probably stolen”).
    We also considered an analogous claim about § 3925(a)
    in De Leon-Reynoso v. Ashcroft, 
    293 F.3d 633
    , 636–37 (3d Cir.
    2002). There, an alien challenged his deportability for
    committing a crime of moral turpitude under 
    8 U.S.C. § 1227
    (a)(2)(A)(i). Analyzing the statute’s language in light of
    21
    two Pennsylvania Superior Court decisions, we concluded that
    § 3925(a) “is purely subjective.” Id. at 636–37. In doing so, we
    rejected the argument that “[§ 3925(a)] has been interpreted by
    the Pennsylvania courts as having an objective element.” Id. at
    636–37.
    Despite § 3925(a)’s clear text, Barradas-Jacome claims
    that Pennsylvania courts routinely apply a lower mens rea
    threshold for receiving stolen property. See Barradas-Jacome
    Br. 29–33 (citing Commonwealth v. Morrissey, 
    654 A.2d 1049
    (Pa. 1995); and Commonwealth v. Scudder, 
    416 A.2d 1003
     (Pa.
    1980)). Barradas-Jacome has a point to the extent that the
    Pennsylvania Supreme Court opinions in Morrissey and
    Scudder use outdated, objective mens rea language. 9 See
    Morrissey, 654 A.2d at 1054 (“To prove the crime of receiving
    stolen property, the Commonwealth must establish . . . that the
    possessor knew, or had reason to know, that the item was
    stolen.”); Scudder, 416 A.2d at 1006 (“[W]e must look to
    determine whether . . . appellant knew or should have known
    that the van was stolen.”). But despite the court’s loose
    9
    The text of § 3925(a) was amended in 1972 when
    Pennsylvania enacted its new Crimes Code. See Act of Dec. 6,
    1972, No. 334, 
    1972 Pa. Laws 1482
    , 1538–39. A prior version
    of the statute required that individuals “knew or had reason to
    know the item was stolen.” Commonwealth v. Peluso, 
    393 A.2d 344
    , 347 (Pa. 1978) (emphasis added). This earlier statutory
    language led the Pennsylvania Superior Court to enunciate an
    objective mens rea standard that asked whether “a reasonably
    prudent [person]” would suspect the property was stolen. See,
    e.g., Commonwealth v. Gazal, 
    166 A.2d 314
    , 316 (Pa. Super.
    Ct. 1960); Commonwealth v. Frankina, 
    39 A.2d 628
    , 630 (Pa.
    Super. Ct. 1944).
    22
    language, neither decision involves a defendant who was
    prosecuted, or convicted, for receiving stolen property under
    an objective, reasonable-person standard, rather than the
    subjective standard defined by Section 3925(a). In fact,
    Scudder cites another Pennsylvania Supreme Court decision—
    from before the statute’s amendment in 1972—to clarify the
    subjective nature of Section 3925(a)’s mens rea requirement.
    
    Id.
     at 1005 (citing Commonwealth v. Davis, 
    280 A.2d 119
     (Pa.
    1971)) (Commonwealth must establish that defendant “either
    ‘intentionally received’ or ‘knew’ that the property had been
    stolen . . . to sustain the charges” for receiving stolen property
    (emphasis added)). The Pennsylvania Supreme Court has also
    affirmed at least one Pennsylvania Superior Court case that
    correctly stated the subjective, post-1972 mens rea requirement
    for § 3925(a). See Commonwealth v. Stafford, 
    623 A.2d 838
    ,
    840 (Pa Super. Ct. 1993), aff’d, 
    652 A.2d 297
     (Pa. 1995) (per
    curiam); see also Commonwealth v. Matthews, 
    632 A.2d 570
    ,
    572 (Pa. Super. Ct. 1993) (citing Stafford for § 3925(a)’s mens
    rea requirement). 10
    10
    Barradas-Jacome highlights some confusion in the
    Pennsylvania lower courts over application of § 3925(a)’s
    mens rea standard. Some of these lower court decisions apply
    § 3925(a)’s subjective mens rea requirement as written in the
    statute and so do not support his argument, see, e.g.,
    Commonwealth v. Robbins, 
    647 A.2d 555
    , 557–58 (Pa. Super.
    Ct. 1994); others cite outdated mens rea language, even though
    the court concludes that defendants actually knew they were
    receiving stolen property, see, e.g., Commonwealth v.
    Foreman, 
    797 A.2d 1005
    , 1012–13 (Pa. Super. Ct. 2002);
    Commonwealth v. Grabowski, 
    452 A.2d 827
    , 830 (Pa. Super.
    Ct. 1982); still others incorporate outdated mens rea language
    without clarifying whether the evidence would support
    23
    We are bound by the Pennsylvania Supreme Court’s
    interpretation of current state law. See Johnson v. United
    States, 
    559 U.S. 133
    , 138 (2010); Johnson v. Fankell, 520 U.S
    911, 916 (1997) (“Neither this Court nor any other federal
    tribunal has any authority to place a construction on a state
    statute different from the one rendered by the highest court of
    the State.”). We therefore hold that the mens rea element of
    Pennsylvania’s receiving stolen property statute, 
    18 Pa. Cons. Stat. § 3925
    (a), is not broader than the generic offense
    contemplated by 
    8 U.S.C. § 1101
    (a)(43)(G).
    B
    Barradas-Jacome makes two more arguments
    challenging DHS’s aggravated felony determination. Neither
    has merit.
    First, Barradas-Jacome claims his conviction for receipt
    of stolen property cannot categorically qualify as an
    aggravated felony because Pennsylvania consolidates all theft
    offenses under 
    18 Pa. Cons. Stat. § 3902
    , and those theft
    offenses criminalize more than 
    8 U.S.C. § 1101
    (a)(43)(G). His
    argument relies on an erroneous belief that Pennsylvania’s
    generic definition of “theft” applies equally to “receipt of
    stolen property” offenses, based on the text of § 3902. In fact,
    § 3902 does not permit the Commonwealth to prosecute an
    individual for receiving stolen property under § 3925(a) by
    proving the elements of other theft offenses. Rather, it permits
    conviction under § 3925(a)’s subjective statutory standard,
    see, e.g., Crespo v. Hughes, 
    167 A.3d 168
    , 188 (Pa. Super. Ct.
    2017); Commonwealth v. Parker, 
    847 A.2d 745
    , 752 (Pa.
    Super. Ct. 2004).
    24
    the Commonwealth to present evidence supporting theft
    “committed in any manner . . . under this chapter,” even if the
    initial complaint or indictment specified a different theft crime.
    
    18 Pa. Cons. Stat. § 3902
    . It does not alter the elements of each
    individual theft offense under Pennsylvania law. See, e.g.,
    Commonwealth v. Peduzzi, 
    488 A.2d 29
    , 31 (Pa. Super. Ct.
    1985).
    Second, Barradas-Jacome argues that, unlike the
    generic theft offense, § 3925(a) “does not require there to be a
    taking or possession of property without consent,” Reply Br.
    21, and “does not require the specific intent to deprive the
    owner of the rights or benefits of ownership,” Barradas-Jacome
    Br. 38. But the Pennsylvania Supreme Court has affirmed that
    § 3925(a) requires the Commonwealth to “establish that the
    goods in question are actually stolen in order to sustain a
    conviction for receiving stolen property.” Stafford, 
    623 A.2d at 840
    , aff’d, 
    652 A.2d 297
     (Pa. 1995) (per curiam) (emphasis
    added). Likewise, Pennsylvania Superior Court cases have
    consistently held that “intent to deprive permanently” is an
    element of receiving stolen property. Commonwealth v.
    Gomez, 
    224 A.3d 1095
    , 1099 (Pa. Super. Ct. 2019) (quoting
    Commonwealth v. Robinson, 
    128 A.3d 261
    , 265 (Pa. Super Ct.
    2015)). So Barradas-Jacome’s arguments prove more of “a
    theoretical possibility” than “a realistic probability” that
    Pennsylvania would apply § 3925(a) to conduct falling outside
    the generic definition of receiving stolen property. Moncrieffe,
    
    569 U.S. at 191
    .
    C
    Finally, Barradas-Jacome argues for the first time in his
    petition for review that DHS’s expedited removal regulations
    and Form I-851 “unconstitutionally deprived him of ‘the
    25
    opportunity to be heard at a meaningful time and in a
    meaningful manner’ in violation of the INA and the
    constitutional guarantee of due process.” Barradas-Jacome Br.
    44 (quoting Mathews v. Eldridge, 
    424 U.S. 319
    , 333 (1976)).
    He bases his due process claim on the same arguments made
    about exhaustion—that DHS did not provide him a reasonable
    opportunity to rebut its aggravated felony determination during
    his expedited removal proceedings.
    We have recognized that aliens subject to removal have
    a Fifth Amendment right to due process in their removal
    proceedings. See Serrano-Alberto v. Att’y Gen., 
    859 F.3d 208
    ,
    213 (3d Cir. 2017). To prevail on his due process claim,
    Barradas-Jacome has to “show (1) that he was prevented from
    reasonably presenting his case, and (2) that substantial
    prejudice resulted.” 
    Id.
     (cleaned up). But he “must first state a
    liberty or property interest” to be protected. Darby v. Att’y
    Gen., 
    1 F.4th 151
    , 165 (3d Cir. 2021). Here, there is no legally
    protected interest. Barradas-Jacome did not contest that he was
    present without admission, or that he failed to present a claim
    for protection; and DHS properly determined that he was
    convicted of an aggravated felony. So the sole advantage he
    could hope to receive from removal proceedings before an IJ
    is the possibility of obtaining discretionary relief. But to the
    extent his aggravated felony conviction does not categorically
    bar discretionary relief, Barradas-Jacome lacks any legally
    protected interest in that relief. See 
    id.
     (“[A]liens do not have a
    liberty or property interest in discretionary relief.”); see also 
    8 U.S.C. § 1158
    (b)(2)(A)(ii), (B)(i) (aggravated felony bars
    asylum); 
    id.
     § 1229b(b)(1)(C) (aggravated felony bars
    cancellation of removal).
    Moreover, to prevail on a procedural due process
    challenge, an alien must make an initial showing of substantial
    26
    prejudice by the alleged procedural error. Bonhometre, 
    414 F.3d at 448
    . But here, there is no reason to conclude that
    Barradas-Jacome could establish prejudice: he is not a lawful
    permanent resident, and he was convicted of an aggravated
    felony. Even if we were to find a due process violation,
    Barradas-Jacome would still be removable under 
    8 U.S.C. § 1228
    (b).
    *     *      *
    For the reasons stated, we will deny Barradas-Jacome’s
    petition for review.
    27