United States v. Nader Abdallah , 911 F.3d 201 ( 2018 )


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  •                                     PUBLISHED
    UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
    FOR THE FOURTH CIRCUIT
    No. 17-4230
    UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
    Plaintiff - Appellee,
    v.
    NADER ABDALLAH,
    Defendant - Appellant.
    Appeal from the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia, at
    Newport News. Raymond A. Jackson, District Judge. (4:15-cr-00018-RAJ-LRL-3)
    Argued: September 25, 2018                              Decided: December 18, 2018
    Before GREGORY, Chief Judge, WYNN and HARRIS, Circuit Judges.
    Reversed and remanded by published opinion. Judge Wynn wrote the opinion, in which
    Chief Judge Gregory and Judge Harris joined.
    ARGUED: Kim Michelle Crump, Norfolk, Virginia, for Appellant. Kevin Patrick
    Hudson, OFFICE OF THE UNITED STATES ATTORNEY, Newport News, Virginia,
    for Appellee. ON BRIEF: Dana J. Boente, United States Attorney, Alexandria,
    Virginia, Eric Hurt, Assistant United States Attorney, OFFICE OF THE UNITED
    STATES ATTORNEY, Newport News, Virginia, for Appellee.
    WYNN, Circuit Judge:
    A jury convicted Defendant Nader Abdallah (“Defendant”) of several offenses
    related to his alleged distribution of controlled substances. On appeal, Defendant raises
    numerous grounds for setting aside his convictions.
    For reasons that follow, we conclude that the district court reversibly erred in
    refusing to suppress inculpatory statements Defendant made during a custodial
    interrogation. We further hold that the district court erred in failing to conduct an in
    camera review of confidential law enforcement records requested by Defendant, when
    Defendant established the confidential records plausibly contained materially favorable
    information. Accordingly, we reverse and remand the case to the district court for further
    proceedings consistent with this opinion.
    I.
    A.
    In June 2012, law enforcement officers began investigating the sale and
    distribution of unlawful synthetic cannabinoids (known as “spice”) in Newport News,
    Virginia and the surrounding area.      During the investigation, the officers received
    complaints that spice was being sold at a local Red Barn gas station and convenience
    store that was owned and operated by Defendant and his son. The officers conducted
    multiple controlled purchases of spice at the Red Barn, the last of which occurred on
    September 16, 2014.
    Two days after the last purchase, the officers executed a search warrant at the Red
    Barn. Inside, they found and seized cardboard parcels filled with packages of spice; a
    2
    digital scale; $109,308 in cash; and two keys. One of the keys opened a storage unit
    containing more spice and the other key opened Defendant’s safe deposit box. After
    obtaining another warrant, the officers seized an additional $701,450 in cash from the
    safe deposit box.
    Thereafter, the United States Customs and Border Protection sent Defendant
    notice that it had confiscated his property and that he could file an administrative petition
    for its return. Defendant filed two sworn petitions to recover the two sums of cash that
    had been confiscated from the Red Barn and the safe deposit box. Each petition stated: “I
    maintain my earnings in cash form for religious reasons. I am a Muslim and I strictly
    adhere to the tenets of my faith. One of these is the law against usury. I, therefore, do
    not maintain a bank account and whenever possible keep my money in cash . . . and other
    tangible forms that do not accrue interest.” J.A. 777–79. But Defendant had multiple
    bank accounts and had conducted bank transactions on the same day.
    After the search, Defendant sold the Red Barn and bought another building at the
    former Newport Video location.           Thereafter, Defendant’s son emailed Michael
    McMahon—the owner of a spice distribution company—and informed McMahon that he
    and Defendant wanted to use the Newport Video location to sell spice wholesale. The
    officers intercepted these emails and began to track the location’s packages. On April 20,
    2015, the officers executed a search warrant at the Newport Video location, during which
    they found additional spice, a revolver, crack cocaine, drug paraphernalia, and $10,000.
    3
    B.
    Five days before the Newport Video search, a federal grand jury returned its first
    indictment against Defendant and, that same day, a federal court issued an arrest warrant
    for Defendant. The officers arrested Defendant at the Newport Video location and took
    him to the Newport News Police Headquarters for interrogation.
    Three officers were present for Defendant’s interrogation: (1) Special Agent Lewis
    of the Department of Homeland Security, (2) Inspector Sylvester of the United States
    Postal Inspection Service, and (3) Detective Calhoon of the Newport News Police
    Department. Special Agent Lewis and Inspector Sylvester later recounted Defendant’s
    interrogation during a suppression hearing before the United States District Court for the
    Eastern District of Virginia. Defendant exercised his right not to testify, and the district
    court ultimately adopted the officers’ recitation of events. See United States v. Abdallah,
    
    196 F.Supp.3d 599
     (E.D. Va. 2016).
    The officers chose not to record the interrogation. Instead, Inspector Sylvester
    took notes and Detective Calhoon observed while Special Agent Lewis interrogated
    Defendant. According to the officers, Special Agent Lewis started the interrogation by
    reading   Defendant    his   Miranda    rights.     Defendant     purportedly   interrupted
    “approximately halfway” through to inform the officers that he “wasn’t going to say
    anything at all.” J.A. 79; see also Abdallah, 196 F.Supp.3d at 600. Agent Lewis
    responded by stating, “Well, just let me finish your Warning first.” J.A. 79. Immediately
    after the warning, Agent Lewis asked, “Do you even know why you’re under arrest[?]”
    Defendant responded, “No, tell me.” J.A. 79. Agent Lewis then repeated the Miranda
    4
    warning.   This time, Defendant did not interrupt, and Defendant indicated that he
    understood his rights. Defendant subsequently made multiple inculpatory statements.
    The officers also described Defendant’s demeanor during the interrogation. Both
    Special Agent Lewis and Inspector Sylvester testified that Defendant was “lucid,” “very
    upbeat, jovial, [and] very animated.” J.A. 79, 112, 127. During cross-examination,
    Agent Lewis agreed with defense counsel that Defendant was “very cooperative,” not
    difficult, “very forthcoming,” and was not “the type of person that had an attitude.” J.A.
    96–97. Finally, Agent Lewis acknowledged that Defendant’s demeanor “[s]urprisingly”
    did not “change at all during the course of the interview.” J.A. 82.
    C.
    On April 1, 2016, Defendant filed a motion to suppress all statements made during
    his custodial interrogation. Defendant first argued that by stating that he “was not going
    to say anything at all,” he unambiguously requested to remain silent.        Because the
    officers failed to scrupulously honor Defendant’s request, Defendant maintained his
    statements were inadmissible. The district court denied Defendant’s suppression motion,
    finding his invocation to be “ambiguous, especially given the fact that he voluntarily
    waived his Miranda rights minutes later once informed of the charges against him and the
    subject of the interrogation.” Abdallah, 196 F.Supp.3d at 604.
    Defendant also sought suppression because “it is not clear what if any Miranda
    warnings were given.”      J.A. 46.   Defendant noted the officers did not record the
    interrogation and only Inspector Sylvester took notes. Inspector Sylvester’s handwritten
    notes first state, “Miranda from DHS form-understood,” and, on the next line, Defendant
    5
    was “Not going to say anything at all.” J.A. 154. Inspector Sylvester’s contemporaneous
    notes nowhere suggest that Defendant interrupted his Miranda warnings.
    After the interrogation, Agent Lewis drafted a report from his memory. Agent
    Lewis emailed that draft to Detective Calhoon and Inspector Sylvester, which prompted
    “some modifications.” J.A. 92. Eight days after the interrogation, Agent Lewis issued a
    final typewritten report indicating that Defendant interjected halfway through the first set
    of Miranda warnings.         Claiming inconsistencies between Inspector Sylvester’s
    contemporaneous notes and the final report, Defendant requested production of the
    officers’ emails pertaining to the drafting of the report.      The district court denied
    Defendant’s production request, relying on Agent Lewis’s representation that he had not
    removed a request for counsel or a request to remain silent.
    On October 2, 2016, Defendant moved for the district court to reconsider his
    motions requesting production of the drafting exchange and for suppression of his
    statement. In support, Defendant asserted that, after reviewing a copy of Agent Lewis’s
    grand jury testimony, Defendant found what he considered to be additional
    inconsistencies among Agent Lewis’s grand jury testimony, his suppression hearing
    testimony, and the final report.
    In particular, during the suppression hearing, Agent Lewis testified that he did not
    obtain a written Miranda waiver from Defendant because he did not want to “interrupt
    the flow” of the interrogation. J.A. 101–02. Agent Lewis also testified that Defendant
    was “moving a mile a minute” and he “did not want to stifle the statements that
    [Defendant] was making.” J.A. 101–02. By contrast, Agent Lewis testified to the grand
    6
    jury that Defendant had waived his Miranda rights “both orally and in writing” prior to
    the interrogation.   J.A. 1256.   Furthermore, Agent Lewis told the grand jury that
    Defendant “started off slow” after receiving the Miranda warning—contrary to Agent
    Lewis’s suppression hearing testimony that Defendant was “moving a mile a minute.”
    J.A. 1264. Finally, Agent Lewis did not testify before the grand jury that Defendant
    interrupted his Miranda warnings to say he “wasn’t going to say anything at all.” On
    March 16, 2017, the district court again denied Defendant’s production and suppression
    motions.
    D.
    Beginning October 4, 2016, Defendant was tried by jury before the district court.
    During Defendant’s trial, the government introduced much of Defendant’s confession
    through Inspector Sylvester’s testimony. For example, Inspector Sylvester informed the
    jury that Defendant had provided a detailed explanation of his spice distribution
    relationship with McMahon. Defendant also told the officers that he sold spice to “pretty
    much everybody” and had sold approximately 10,000 grams of spice. When asked about
    the crack cocaine and paraphernalia found during the Newport Video search, Defendant
    admitted that he used crack cocaine and had smoked crack cocaine two days prior.
    Defendant also stated that he would give prostitutes crack cocaine as a “bonus.”
    Regarding the safe deposit box, Defendant told the officers that he had a second safe
    deposit box that the officers were “too late” to seize. From that box, Defendant escaped
    with $150,000.       Finally, Inspector Sylvester testified that Defendant “said his
    understanding was that [spice] was illegal under federal law.” J.A. 343. Relying on that
    7
    statement in Defendant’s confession, the government emphasized during closing
    arguments that Defendant “told agents [spice] was illegal.” J.A. 1148.
    After twelve days of trial, the jury convicted Defendant of (1) one count of
    conspiring to distribute Schedule I controlled substances and controlled substance
    analogues (i.e., spice), in violation of 
    21 U.S.C. § 846
    ; (2) one count of possessing a
    Schedule I controlled substance (i.e., spice) with intent to distribute, in violation of 
    18 U.S.C. §§ 841
    (a)(1) and 841(b)(1)(C); (3) one count of distributing and possessing with
    intent to distribute a Schedule II controlled substance (i.e., crack cocaine), in violation of
    
    21 U.S.C. §§ 841
    (a)(1) and 841(b)(1)(C), and 
    18 U.S.C. § 2
    ; and (4) two counts of
    making false statements to the federal government (i.e., one count for each of his sworn
    petitions to Customs), in violation of 
    18 U.S.C. § 1001
    (a)(3).
    Defendant timely appealed.
    II.
    On appeal, Defendant first argues that the officers violated his Fifth Amendment
    rights when the officers continued to question him after he unambiguously invoked his
    right to remain silent and therefore that the district court erred by failing to suppress the
    statements Defendant made in response to those questions. “We review the factual
    findings underlying a motion to suppress for clear error and the district court’s legal
    determinations de novo. When a suppression motion has been denied, this Court reviews
    the evidence in the light most favorable to the government.” United States v. Hashime,
    
    734 F.3d 278
    , 282 (4th Cir. 2013) (citation omitted).            On review, we agree with
    Defendant. Because law enforcement officers failed to scrupulously honor Defendant’s
    8
    unequivocal invocation of the right to remain silent, the district court erred by failing to
    grant Defendant’s motions to suppress and reconsider suppression.
    A.
    The Fifth Amendment of the United States Constitution provides: “[n]o person . . .
    shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself[.]” U.S. Const.
    amend. V. To protect this constitutional right against self-incrimination, the Supreme
    Court’s landmark decision in Miranda v. Arizona established certain “procedural
    safeguards” that officers must comply with to subject a suspect to custodial interrogation.
    
    384 U.S. 436
    , 478–79 (1966). First, suspects must be informed of their “right to remain
    silent” and their “right to the presence of an attorney.” 
    Id. at 444
    . If a suspect “indicates
    in any manner, at any time prior to or during questioning, that he wishes to remain silent,
    the interrogation must cease.” 
    Id.
     at 473–74 (emphases added). Similarly, if a suspect
    “states that he wants an attorney, the interrogation must cease until an attorney is
    present.” 
    Id. at 474
    . Thus, by invoking either the right to remain silent or the right to
    counsel, a suspect has the “right to cut off questioning” and officers must cease
    questioning the suspect. 
    Id.
    To invoke the right to remain silent or the right to counsel and thereby cut off
    questioning, the suspect’s invocation must be “unambiguous.” Berghuis v. Thompkins,
    
    560 U.S. 370
    , 381–82 (2010) (request to remain silent); Davis v. United States, 
    512 U.S. 452
    , 459 (1994) (request for counsel).            An invocation is unambiguous when a
    “reasonable police officer under the circumstances would have understood” the suspect
    intended to invoke his Fifth Amendment rights. Tice v. Johnson, 
    647 F.3d 87
    , 107 (4th
    9
    Cir. 2011); Davis, 
    512 U.S. at 459
    . Accordingly, “a suspect need not speak with the
    discrimination of an Oxford don” to invoke his Fifth Amendment rights. Davis, 
    512 U.S. at 459
    ; see also Emspak v. United States, 
    349 U.S. 190
    , 194 (1955) (explaining that “no
    ritualistic formula or talismanic phrase is essential in order to invoke” Fifth Amendment
    rights). This objective inquiry “‘avoids difficulties of proof and . . . provide[s] guidance
    to officers’ on how to proceed in the face of ambiguity.” Thompkins, 
    560 U.S. at
    381–82
    (citing Davis, 
    512 U.S. at
    458–59).
    In its suppression memorandum, the district court found that “Defendant
    interrupted Agent [Lewis’s Miranda warnings] and stated that he ‘wasn’t going to say
    anything at all.’” Abdallah, 196 F.Supp.3d at 600 (emphasis added). Numerous courts—
    including this Court—have held that materially indistinguishable statements amount to an
    unambiguous invocation of Fifth Amendment rights. For example, in Tice v. Johnson,
    this Court took the position, in a habeas case, that when a defendant told interrogators, “I
    have decided not to say any more,” he unambiguously invoked his right to remain silent.
    Tice, 
    647 F.3d at 107
     (“I have decided not to say any more.”); see also Jones v.
    Harrington, 
    829 F.3d 1128
    , 1140 (9th Cir. 2016) (“I don’t want to talk no more”); United
    States v. McCarthy, 382 F. App’x 789, 791–92 (10th Cir. 2010) (“I don’t want nothing to
    say to anyone.”); McGraw v. Holland, 
    257 F.3d 513
    , 515, 518 (6th Cir. 2001) (“I don’t
    wanna talk about it.”); Arnold v. Runnels, 
    421 F.3d 859
    , 865 (9th Cir. 2005) (“[T]he
    Supreme Court [never] has required that a suspect seeking to invoke his right to silence to
    provide any statement more explicit or more technically-worded than ‘I have nothing to
    10
    say.’”); United States v. Reid, 
    211 F.Supp.2d 366
    , 372 (D. Mass. 2002) (cited favorably
    in Tice, 
    647 F.3d at 107
    ) (“I have nothing else to say.”).
    Notwithstanding contrary and binding authority, the district court found
    Defendant’s statement that he “‘wasn’t going to say anything at all’ . . . ambiguous,
    especially given the fact that [Defendant] voluntarily waived his Miranda rights minutes
    later once informed of the charges against him and the subject of the invocation.”
    Abdallah, 196 F.Supp.3d at 600, 604 (emphasis added). The district court erred by
    relying upon these post-request facts to cast ambiguity on Defendant’s otherwise
    unambiguous request to remain silent.
    When determining whether an invocation is ambiguous, courts can consider
    whether the “request [itself] . . . or the circumstances leading up to the request would
    render [the request] ambiguous[.]” Smith v. Illinois, 
    469 U.S. 91
    , 98 (1984) (emphasis
    added). But courts cannot cast ambiguity on an otherwise clear invocation by looking to
    circumstances which occurred after the request. In Smith v. Illinois, lower courts found a
    defendant’s request for counsel to be ambiguous “only by looking to [the defendant’s]
    subsequent responses to police questioning[.]” 
    Id. at 97
     (emphases in original). The
    Supreme Court held that a defendant’s “postrequest responses to further interrogation
    may not be used to cast retrospective doubt on the clarity of the initial request itself.” 
    Id. at 100
     (emphasis in original). The Court reasoned “[n]o authority, and no logic, permits
    the interrogator to proceed . . . on his own terms and as if the defendant had requested
    nothing, in the hope that the defendant might be induced to say something casting
    retrospective doubt on his initial statement . . . .”         
    Id. at 99
     (citation omitted).
    11
    Subsequently, the Supreme Court also recognized in Berghuis v. Thompkins that “there is
    no principled reason to adopt different standards for determining when an accused has
    invoked the Miranda right to remain silent and the Miranda right to counsel[.]” 
    560 U.S. at 381
    . Together, Smith and Thompkins establish that courts likewise cannot use post-
    request facts and circumstances in determining whether a defendant unambiguously
    invoked his right to remain silent, let alone to cast ambiguity on an otherwise clear
    request to remain silent. Accord Jones, 829 F.3d at 1140; United States v. Hamidullin,
    
    114 F.Supp.3d 388
    , 392 (E.D. Va. 2015).
    The district court and government highlight cases outside of this Circuit in which
    “similar language was not considered an unequivocal invocation of the right to remain
    silent.” Abdallah, 196 F.Supp.3d at 603. These cases are inapposite. For example, in
    United States v. Sherrod and United States v. Banks, context preceding the defendants’
    purported invocations rendered what otherwise might have been unambiguous language
    open to alternative interpretations. See United States v. Sherrod, 
    445 F.3d 980
    , 982 (7th
    Cir. 2007) (officer continually refused to answer defendant’s questions); United States v.
    Banks, 
    78 F.3d 1190
    , 1196 (7th Cir. 1996) (defendant had just been arrested and placed
    in a squad car), vacated on other grounds by Mills v. United States, 
    519 U.S. 990
     (1996),
    on remand United States v. Mills, 
    122 F.3d 346
    , 349–51 (affirming on this point). In
    Banks, the Seventh Circuit made clear:
    We believe that the magistrate judge’s characterization of the statement
    was, on this record, a permissible one. [The defendant’s] response of “I
    don’t got nothing to say,” standing alone, could be construed as an
    invocation of his right to remain silent. Yet, when placed in the context of
    12
    his other comments, the alternate interpretation—that it was merely an
    angry response to the form in front of him—is also possible.
    
    78 F.3d at 1197
     (emphases added).
    By contrast, here the government presented no pre-request context suggesting
    Defendant’s statement was nothing more than an “angry response” or otherwise casting
    ambiguity on Defendant’s clear request to remain silent. Without pre-request context,
    Defendant’s unambiguous statement that he “wasn’t going to say anything at all” cannot
    be construed as anything but an unambiguous request to remain silent.
    To the extent the government relies on cases like Banks to argue that an “angry”
    response to Miranda warnings generally does not qualify as an unambiguous invocation,
    we disagree. There is no requirement that Miranda invocations be measured, polite, or
    free of anger, in the assessment of the officers to whom they are directed. Indeed, a
    purported invocation that is not assertive enough may be deemed too equivocal to pass
    muster under Davis, see 
    512 U.S. at 459
    ; if invocations that are perceived as overly
    assertive also are disqualified, then suspects will be left to walk a tonal tightrope, with no
    margin for error on either side. And even if we did agree with the government’s premise,
    we note, it would make no difference on the facts of this case: as the officers’ own
    suppression testimony makes clear, the Defendant in fact was not angry but instead “very
    upbeat [and] jovial” throughout his interrogation. J.A. 79.
    The government also argues that because the Defendant made his statement before
    Agent Lewis completed the Miranda warnings, he could not have invoked his right to
    remain silent “knowingly and intelligently.” Appellee’s Br. at 20. But there is no
    13
    requirement that an unambiguous invocation of Miranda rights also be “knowing and
    intelligent.”   That is the standard applied to the waiver of Miranda and other
    constitutional rights, not to the invocation of such rights. See Thompkins, 
    560 U.S. at 382
    .; Johnson v. Zerbst, 
    304 U.S. 458
    , 464 (1938) (because courts “indulge every
    reasonable presumption against waiver” of constitutional rights, such waivers must be
    knowing and intelligent).
    Tellingly, the government cites no case—nor have we found any such case—
    holding that defendants must wait until the completion of Miranda warnings prior to
    invocation. At best, the government offers us a footnote from McNeil v. Wisconsin,
    which it quotes as saying “we have in fact never held that a person can invoke his
    Miranda rights anticipatorily . . . .” Appellee’s Br. at 21. But that footnote goes on to
    state: “We have in fact never held that a person can invoke his Miranda rights
    anticipatorily, in a context other than ‘custodial interrogation[.]’” McNeil v. Wisconsin,
    
    501 U.S. 171
    , 182 n.3 (1991) (emphasis added).
    There is a good reason that the government cannot provide us with a case. The
    government’s argument does more than misapply the “knowing and intelligent” standard
    to invocations of constitutional rights. It also rests on an unwarranted assumption that no
    defendant can ever be aware of his constitutional rights before the government informs
    him of those rights. That assumption runs counter to the “deeply rooted” presumption in
    our criminal justice system that “every person [knows] the law.” Cheek v. United States,
    
    498 U.S. 192
    , 199 (1991). When criminal defendants complain that complex statutes are
    too “difficult for the average citizen to know and comprehend the extent of the duties and
    14
    obligations imposed by” law, we nevertheless apply this presumption and hold that
    “ignorance of the law . . . is no defense to criminal prosecution[.]” 
    Id.
     at 199–200. But
    the government now asks us to adopt the opposite presumption—that defendants cannot
    know their constitutional rights prior to receiving a warning—in the context of those
    rights that Miranda protects—rights that Miranda has rendered “part of our national
    culture.” Dickerson v. United States, 
    530 U.S. 428
    , 443 (2000). There is no principled
    reason to adopt the conflicting presumptions that defendants must know the criminal laws
    which inculpate them but cannot know the constitutional rights which protect them. Nor
    is there any reason for the law to effectively penalize a defendant who, even without
    receiving the warnings required by Miranda, is aware of his constitutional rights and
    chooses to exercise them.
    Moreover, the theory underlying the government’s argument fundamentally
    misconceives the relationship between Miranda warnings and the right to remain silent.
    To that end, the Supreme Court has held that defendants have a constitutional right to
    remain silent even when they are not subjected to custodial interrogation and thus have
    no right to Miranda warnings. See, e.g., Minnesota v. Murphy, 
    465 U.S. 420
    , 427 (1984)
    (discussing both criminal and noncriminal investigations); see also Salinas v. Texas
    (2013), 
    570 U.S. 178
    , 190–91 (Alito, J., concurring) (plurality opinion) (suspects may
    unequivocally invoke the privilege against self-incrimination in a non-custodial setting).
    In contrast, Miranda warnings are “procedural safeguards” that the Supreme Court
    “employed to dispel the compulsion inherent in custodial surroundings.” See Miranda,
    
    384 U.S. at 458
    . Without these warnings, “no statement obtained from the defendant can
    15
    truly be the product of his free choice.” 
    Id.
     Miranda warnings are not—nor were they
    intended to be—a procedural stumbling block to prevent informed defendants from
    exercising their constitutional rights.    Instead, they were instituted to inform the
    “unaware” of their preexisting rights and to “show the individual that his interrogators are
    prepared to recognize his privilege should he choose to exercise it.” 
    Id. at 468
    . The
    officers could not ignore Defendant’s unambiguous invocation merely because they
    decided that Defendant’s invocation was not “knowing and intelligent.”
    B.
    Under black-letter Fifth Amendment law, once a suspect unambiguously indicates
    “that he wishes to remain silent, the interrogation must cease.” Miranda, 
    384 U.S. at
    473–74.    In Michigan v. Mosley, the Supreme Court held that the “resumption of
    questioning is permissible” and subsequent confessions are admissible only if the
    suspect’s right to cut off questioning was “scrupulously honored.” 
    423 U.S. 96
    , 101–04
    (1975) (emphasis added). Questioning resumes whenever officers engage in either (1)
    “express questioning,” or (2) “words or actions,” which “the police should know are
    reasonably likely to elicit an incriminating response.” Rhode Island v. Innis, 
    446 U.S. 291
    , 301 (1980); United States v. Johnson, 
    734 F.3d 270
    , 276 (4th Cir. 2013). Under this
    formulation, questioning generally does not resume when officers merely make “requests
    for routine information necessary for basic identification purposes.” United States v.
    Cowan, 
    674 F.3d 947
    , 958 (8th Cir. 2012) (citation omitted). But questioning does
    resume when officers “should reasonably be aware that the information sought is directly
    relevant to the substantive offense charged.” 
    Id.
     (citing Pennsylvania v. Muniz, 
    496 U.S. 16
    582, 602 n. 14 (1990)) (emphasis added); see also United States v. Molina-Gomez, 
    781 F.3d 13
    , 24–25 (1st Cir. 2015) (Though “routine questions . . . do not constitute
    interrogation,” defendant was interrogated when asked questions “relating to” his
    suspected crimes); United States v. Burns, 
    684 F.2d 1066
    , 1075–76 (2d Cir. 1982).
    To guide the inquiry into whether a suspect’s rights have been scrupulously
    honored, this Court has identified five non-exhaustive, non-dispositive factors:
    (1) Whether the police had given the suspect Miranda warnings at the first
    interrogation and the suspect acknowledged that he understood the
    warnings;
    (2) Whether the police immediately ceased the interrogation when the
    suspect indicated that he did not want to answer questions;
    (3) Whether the police resumed questioning the suspect only after the
    passage of a significant period of time;
    (4) Whether the police provided a fresh set of Miranda warnings before the
    second interrogation; and
    (5) Whether the second interrogation was restricted to a crime that had not
    been a subject of the earlier interrogation.
    Weeks v. Angelone, 
    176 F.3d 249
    , 267 (4th Cir. 1999).          Despite these factors, the
    touchstone remains whether a “review of the circumstances” reveals that the suspect’s
    rights were “fully respected.” 
    Id.
     at 268 (citing Mosley, 
    423 U.S. at 104
    ). Of particular
    relevance in this case are the factors inquiring whether: (1) the officers immediately
    ceased questioning, (2) the officers waited a “significant period of time” before resuming
    questioning, and (3) the interrogation involved the same crime which was the subject of
    the earlier investigation.   What constitutes a “significant period” is a function of the
    degree to which “police persist[ed] in efforts to wear down the [suspect’s resistance] and
    17
    make him change his mind.” 
    Id.
     (citing Mosley, 
    423 U.S. at
    105–06). Although this
    Court “does not require a durational minimum” before resuming questioning, 
    id.,
     we are
    mindful that “to permit the continuation of custodial interrogation after a momentary
    cessation would clearly frustrate the purposes of Miranda . . . .” Mosley, 
    423 U.S. at 102
    .
    In its analysis, the district court pointed out that the Weeks factors militated against
    finding Defendant’s request to remain silent was scrupulously honored. See Abdallah,
    196 F.Supp.3d at 604 (“[T]here was not a significant passage of time between the first
    statement and the interrogation and they concerned the same crime.”). We agree.
    As was previously discussed, Defendant’s statement that he “wasn’t going to say
    anything at all” was a clear invocation of the right to remain silent. See supra Part II.A.
    Still, the interrogating officer responded, “Well, just let me finish your warning first,”
    read Defendant his Miranda rights, and immediately asked Defendant, “Do you even
    know why you’re under arrest[?]” J.A. 79, 105. Other courts have recognized that this
    precise question is reasonably likely to elicit an incriminating response.          See, e.g.,
    Etheridge v. Johnson, 
    49 F.Supp.2d 963
    , 982 (S.D. Tex. 1999), dismissed, 
    209 F.3d 718
    (5th Cir. 2000); Pirtle v. Lambert, 
    150 F.Supp.2d 1078
     (E.D. Wash. 2001), vacated on
    other grounds by Pirtle v. Morgan, 
    313 F.3d 1160
     (9th Cir. 2002). And with good
    reason.
    One can expect that criminal defendants who are asked “Do you know why you
    are under arrest?” will respond with a variety of incriminating, speculative statements
    about their substantive offenses. See, e.g., Etheridge, 
    49 F.Supp.2d at 969
     (“Yes, I know
    I’m under arrest for killing that fifteen-year-old girl”); Pirtle, 
    150 F.Supp.2d at 1083
     (“Of
    18
    course I do, you might as well shoot me now”). Even though Defendant stated he wasn’t
    going to say anything all, Defendant was immediately asked an express question that
    reasonably required him to discuss his substantive offense. Cowan, 
    674 F.3d at 958
    .
    Defendant reasonably responded with several incriminating statements.          And those
    statements were ultimately used to convict Defendant. On these facts, it is clear that
    Defendant’s rights were not scrupulously honored as required by Weeks and Mosley.
    Accord Jones, 829 F.3d at 1141; United States v. Nam Quoc Hoang, No. 1:16-CR-193,
    
    2017 WL 1197243
    , at *6 (E.D. Va. Mar. 31, 2017) (holding that when the defendant was
    questioned immediately about the same crime after invoking his right to remain silent, the
    defendant’s rights were not scrupulously honored).
    The government makes much of the fact that Defendant “eagerly answered
    questions, even provided narratives without prompting” after receiving a second Miranda
    warning. Appellee’s Br. at 29 (emphasis added). But law enforcement officers do not
    scrupulously honor a Defendant’s unambiguous request to remain silent when those
    officers unceasingly interrogate Defendant and ignore his clear request to remain silent.
    As the Ninth Circuit rightly recognized:
    Under Miranda, the onus is not on the suspect to be persistent in his
    demand to remain silent. Rather, the responsibility falls to the law
    enforcement officers to scrupulously respect his demand. Relying on the
    fact that it was the defendant, not the interrogators, who continued the
    discussion, ignores the bedrock principle that the interrogators should have
    stopped all questioning. A statement taken after the suspect invoked his
    right to remain silent cannot be other than the product of compulsion, subtle
    or otherwise.
    
    19 Jones, 829
     F.3d at 1141 (citations and alterations omitted). Defendant in this case
    invoked his right to remain silent. Under Mosley, all questioning should have ceased.
    Because Defendant’s request was ignored, and questioning continued, Defendant’s right
    was not scrupulously honored, and Defendant’s subsequent statements are therefore
    inadmissible. 1
    C.
    Even though the district court believed the Weeks factors supported a finding that
    Defendant’s invocation was not scrupulously honored, the court nevertheless suggested
    this was “not dispositive because the officer repeated the Miranda warning and obtained
    a waiver from the Defendant . . . .” Abdallah, 196 F.Supp.3d at 604. The government
    likewise argues that Defendant “understood and explicitly waived his rights.” Appellee’s
    Br. at 14. These statements improperly conflate the invocation and waiver inquiries.
    In Smith, the Supreme Court held that waiver and invocation are “entirely distinct
    inquiries, and the two must not be blurred by merging them together.” Smith, 
    469 U.S. at 98
    . There, the defendant unambiguously invoked the right to counsel. 
    Id.
     Because the
    defendant invoked his right to counsel, the Supreme Court held that the government
    could not establish a “valid waiver . . . by showing only that [the defendant] responded to
    1
    The government similarly argues the exclusionary rule should not apply because
    suppression “does nothing to advance” the “deterrence of unlawful police activity.”
    Appellee’s Br. at 55–56. We disagree. Failing to scrupulously honor the constitutional
    rights of defendants is precisely the sort of behavior that the exclusionary rule is meant to
    deter. See Mosley, 
    423 U.S. at 102
    .
    20
    further police-initiated custodial interrogation.’” 
    Id.
     (quoting Edwards v. Arizona, 
    451 U.S. 477
    , 484 (1981)).
    Similarly, once a suspect unambiguously invokes the right to remain silent, all
    questioning must cease. Miranda, 
    384 U.S. at 444
    ; see also Jones, 829 F.3d at 1132.
    Subsequent statements are inadmissible if the officers continue questioning the suspect.
    Mosley, 
    423 U.S. at 104
    . Officers cannot fail to scrupulously honor a suspect’s request in
    the hope that the suspect will subsequently waive that failure. Cf. United States v. Clark,
    
    499 F.2d 802
    , 807 (4th Cir. 1974) (“[O]nce the privilege has been asserted . . . an
    interrogator must not be permitted to seek its retraction, total or otherwise.”) (quoting
    United States v. Crisp, 
    435 F.2d 354
    , 357 (7th Cir. 1970)).
    Defendant in this case unambiguously invoked his right to remain silent. See
    supra Part II.A. Nevertheless, the officers continued interrogating Defendant and thus
    failed to scrupulously honor Defendant’s invocation. See supra Part II.B. Under Mosley,
    Defendant’s statements are therefore inadmissible.       The officers cannot circumvent
    Mosley’s command by ignoring Defendant’s request, continuing to question Defendant,
    and then using Defendant’s subsequent responses to argue he waived his asserted
    constitutional right.
    D.
    The government argues that, even if the district court erred by not suppressing
    Defendant’s statements, the error was harmless. Even though Defendant’s confession
    was inadmissible, we will not reverse a conviction if the error was harmless. United
    States v. Colonna, 
    511 F.3d 431
    , 437 (4th Cir. 2007).           “In assessing whether a
    21
    constitutional error was harmless, we determine whether the admission of the statement
    at issue was harmless beyond a reasonable doubt, such that it is clear that a rational fact
    finder would have found the defendant guilty absent the error.” United States v. Giddins,
    
    858 F.3d 870
    , 885 (4th Cir. 2017) (citations and alterations omitted). The test “is not
    whether laying aside the erroneously admitted evidence there was other evidence
    sufficient to convict beyond a reasonable doubt . . ., but more stringently, whether there
    is a reasonable possibility that the evidence complained of might have contributed to the
    conviction.” 
    Id.
     In conducting this analysis, we are mindful that a “confession is like no
    other evidence. Indeed, the, defendant’s own confession is probably the most probative
    and damaging evidence that can be admitted against him[.]” Arizona v. Fulminante, 
    499 U.S. 279
    , 296 (1991); see also Jones, 829 F.3d at 1142.
    Based upon the facts before us, we cannot say that Defendant’s coerced statements
    were harmless beyond a reasonable doubt on any of the five convicted counts. Indeed,
    Defendant’s confession played an integral role for each conviction.
    First, to support Defendant’s conspiracy to distribute spice charge, the government
    introduced Defendant’s detailed statements on his relationship with his spice distributor,
    McMahon. Second, to support Defendant’s spice distribution charge, the government
    introduced Defendant’s statements that he sold spice to “pretty much everybody,” he
    “knew spice was illegal under federal law,” and he had sold approximately 10,000 grams
    of spice. Third, to support Defendant’s distribution and possession of crack cocaine
    charge, the government introduced Defendant’s statement that he gave prostitutes crack
    cocaine as a “bonus.” Finally, to support Defendant’s charges of making false statements
    22
    to federal Customs, the government introduced Defendant’s statements that he
    successfully hid $150,000 from an additional safe deposit box that the officers were “too
    late” to seize. By offering Defendant’s statements expressing a desire to conceal his
    money, the government could demonstrate Defendant’s consciousness of guilt, destroy
    Defendant’s credibility, and rebut Defendant’s claim that he maintained his earnings in
    cash for religious reasons. See United States v. Sarwari, 
    669 F.3d 401
    , 407 (4th Cir.
    2012) (Where a statement is “susceptible to multiple interpretations, and a defendant’s
    answer is true under one understanding of the question but false under another, the fact
    finder determines whether the defendant knew his statement was false”); Hickory v.
    United States, 
    160 U.S. 408
    , 416 (“It is undoubted that acts of concealment by an accused
    are competent to go to the jury as tending to establish guilt . . .”). Because of the
    particularly damaging nature of confessions, and because Defendant’s confession was
    integral to every count that Defendant was convicted of, we cannot say beyond all
    reasonable doubt that Defendant’s coerced statements were harmless as to any count.
    III.
    Defendant next argues that Brady v. Maryland, 
    373 U.S. 83
    , 87 (1963), and its
    progeny required the district court to conduct an in camera review before denying his
    request for production of the email exchange among the law enforcement officers
    attending Defendant’s interrogation, which culminated in the final interrogation report. 2
    2
    Having held that the district court erred in denying Defendant’s motion to
    suppress his inculpatory statements, whether the district court erred in denying
    Defendant’s request for in camera review is not essential to our disposition of
    (Continued)
    23
    “In reviewing the district court’s denial of [Defendant]’s Brady motion, we review [the
    district court’s] legal conclusions de novo and its factual findings for clear error.” United
    States v. King, 
    628 F.3d 693
    , 702 (4th Cir. 2011). On review, we agree with Defendant.
    Specifically, because Defendant demonstrated that the drafting exchange plausibly
    contained materially favorable evidence, the district court erred in failing to conduct an in
    camera review before denying Defendant’s production request.
    Under Brady v. Maryland, Defendants are entitled to the disclosure of evidence
    that is “both favorable to the accused and material to guilt or punishment.” Pennsylvania
    v. Ritchie, 
    480 U.S. 39
    , 57 (1987); see also Brady v. Maryland, 
    373 U.S. at 87
    . Evidence
    is favorable “not only when it tends substantively to negate guilt but also when it tends to
    impeach the credibility of a key witness for the prosecution.” Love v. Johnson, 
    57 F.3d 1305
    , 1313 (4th Cir. 1995). Evidence is material if there is a “reasonable probability that,
    had the evidence been disclosed to the defense, the result of the proceeding would have
    been different.” Kyles v. Whitley, 
    514 U.S. 419
    , 433 (1995).
    In a typical Brady case, a defendant has discovered exculpatory evidence after
    trial, which the defendant alleges the government unconstitutionally suppressed. King,
    
    628 F.3d at 702
    . In these cases, the defendant establishes a Brady violation proving the
    materiality and favorability of the withheld evidence. 
    Id.
     (citing Kyles, 
    514 U.S. at 433
    ).
    But in some cases, like Defendant’s case, the government “may possess potential Brady
    Defendant’s appeal. Nonetheless, we exercise our discretion to address the issue so as to
    provide guidance to other courts presented with similar issues.
    24
    material that it deems privileged or that is otherwise confidential.” United States v.
    Trevino, 
    89 F.3d 187
    , 189 (4th Cir. 1996). Because the defendant does not have access to
    the confidential material, the defendant “cannot possibly know, but may only suspect,
    that particular information exists which meets [Brady’s] requirements.” Love, 
    57 F.3d at 1313
    .    In such cases, “a defendant need only make ‘some plausible showing’ that
    exculpatory material exists.”    King, 
    628 F.3d at 703
    .      To make this showing, the
    defendant must “identify the requested confidential material with some degree of
    specificity.” 
    Id.
     Specificity ensures that the government’s Brady obligations do not
    become “unduly burdensome,” Monroe v. Angelone, 
    323 F.3d 286
    , 316 (4th Cir. 2003),
    and that the defendant does not conscript the court for “a groundless fishing expedition,”
    King, 
    628 F.3d at 703
    .
    Once the defendant identifies specific evidence that could plausibly be favorable
    to his defense, the defendant “does not become entitled to direct access to the information
    to determine for himself its materiality and favorability.” Love, 
    57 F.3d at 1313
    . Rather,
    the defendant is “entitled, in order to secure the basic right, to have the information he
    has sufficiently identified submitted to the trial court for in camera inspection and a
    properly reviewable judicial determination made whether any portions meet the [Brady]
    requirements for compulsory disclosure.” 
    Id.
     Because the defendant is entitled to in
    25
    camera review, the district court cannot solely “rely on the government’s good faith” as a
    basis to avoid review. King, 
    628 F.3d at 702
    . 3
    This Court has recognized that an officer’s drafting notes must be disclosed under
    Brady when the defendant makes the appropriate “demonstration that the material sought
    would be exculpatory.” United States v. Crowell, 
    586 F.2d 1020
    , 1029 (4th Cir. 1978).
    Here, Defendant has identified specific evidence—the drafting exchange—and has made
    the required demonstration of plausibility. See Ritchie, 
    480 U.S. at
    58 n.15.
    During the suppression hearing, Defendant sought: (1) to establish that he
    unequivocally invoked his right to remain silent, and (2) to question when and whether
    Miranda warnings were given by impeaching the officers’ credibility. Over the course of
    the suppression hearing, Defendant highlighted substantial inconsistencies that called into
    question when those Miranda warnings were given. For example, Inspector Sylvester’s
    handwritten notes said, “Miranda from DHS form-understood” and then Defendant was
    “not going to say anything at all.” J.A. 154. These contemporaneous handwritten notes
    do not mention Defendant interrupting his Miranda warnings.
    In contrast, Agent Lewis’s final report states that Defendant interrupted halfway
    through his Miranda warnings.         Furthermore, Agent Lewis testified during the
    suppression hearing that there were “some modifications” made over the eight-day
    drafting period. J.A. 92. Based on Agent Lewis’s testimony and these inconsistencies—
    3
    There may be exceptional circumstances where the district court could rely in
    part upon the representations of the government. Because the government has not argued
    this case presents any such circumstances, we need not determine whether, or in what
    circumstances, such an exception exists.
    26
    inconsistencies that could plausibly lead to evidence and arguments materially favorable
    to Defendant—Defendant requested production of the email exchange.
    Together, this evidence was sufficient to meet the “meager” plausibility
    requirement for in camera review. Love, 
    57 F.3d at 1313
    . Rather than conduct an in
    camera review, the district court denied Defendant’s request solely based upon Agent
    Lewis’s representation that there would not be exculpatory information in the officers’
    emails pertaining to the drafting of the report. Relying upon this representation was
    error. King, 
    628 F.3d at 702
    .
    The district court’s error was even clearer at the time of Defendant’s motion to
    reconsider production.          There, Defendant demonstrated additional substantial
    inconsistencies between Agent Lewis’s suppression hearing testimony, grand jury
    testimony, and final typewritten report.      For example, Agent Lewis testified at the
    suppression hearing that he did not use a written waiver because Defendant was “moving
    a mile a minute” and he “did not want to stifle” Defendant’s statements. J.A. 101–02.
    But Agent Lewis testified before the grand jury that Defendant waived his Miranda rights
    “both orally and in writing” prior to the interrogation. J.A. 1256. Furthermore, Agent
    Lewis told the grand jury that Defendant “started off slow” after receiving his Miranda
    warnings. J.A. 1264. And Agent Lewis did not tell the grand jury that Defendant
    interrupted his Miranda warnings at all.
    We recognize that the requested emails “may contain nothing helpful to” the
    Defendant.   King, 
    628 F.3d at 703
    .        But as was previously discussed, Defendant’s
    confession contributed to each count for which the jury convicted Defendant. It was
    27
    critical for Defendant’s “entire defense” to establish that he unambiguously invoked the
    right to remain silent and to impeach the officers’ credibility on the nature and timing of
    the Miranda warnings. 
    Id. at 704
    . Based upon: (1) the inconsistencies that existed
    between Inspector Sylvester’s contemporaneous handwritten notes and Agent Lewis’s
    final report, (2) the inconsistencies in Agent Lewis’s grand jury testimony and
    suppression hearing testimony, and (3) Agent Lewis’s own testimony that there were
    “some modifications” over the course of the drafting exchange, it is plausible that an in
    camera review of the specific drafting exchange would reveal evidence that was
    materially favorable to Defendant’s challenge of when Miranda warnings were given.
    The district court thus erred in failing to conduct an in camera review.
    IV.
    Defendant raises several additional arguments on appeal. For reasons briefly
    discussed below, each of these arguments are without merit.
    A.
    Defendant first contends that the district court erred by limiting non-party
    witnesses’ testimony on whether they believed—not whether Defendant believed—that
    spice was illegal. We review “a trial court’s rulings on the admissibility of evidence for
    abuse of discretion” and “will only overturn an evidentiary ruling that is arbitrary and
    irrational.” United States v. Cole, 
    631 F.3d 146
    , 153 (4th Cir. 2011). Trial courts have
    “wide latitude” to “place limitations upon the cross-examination of witnesses . . . based
    on concerns including harassment, prejudice, confusion of the issues, repetition, or
    marginal relevance.”    United States v. Zayyad, 
    741 F.3d 452
    , 459 (4th Cir. 2014)
    28
    (citations and alterations omitted). Furthermore, we “rarely reverse relevancy decisions
    because they are fundamentally a matter of trial management.” 
    Id.
     (citations omitted).
    Under this deferential standard of review, the district court did not abuse its discretion by
    excluding non-party witnesses’ testimony on whether they believed spice was illegal.
    In Zayyad, the defendant sought to cross-examine non-party witnesses on their
    knowledge of the “gray market” to show that the defendant “reasonably believed that he
    dispensed real [as opposed to counterfeit] drugs.” Id. at 458. The district court excluded
    this testimony, finding the witnesses’ knowledge of the gray market was not relevant to
    the defendant’s mens rea. Id. at 459 (citing Fed. R. Evid. 402 (“Irrelevant evidence is not
    admissible”)). This Court affirmed. We explained that absent some showing that the
    defendant relied on the witnesses’ belief, the district court reasonably determined that this
    testimony was merely a distraction, having “no connection to the knowledge element [of
    the crime] and consequently no relevance.” Id. at 460–61.
    As in Zayyad, the district court did not abuse its discretion in excluding the
    testimony of non-party witnesses regarding their knowledge of the illegality of spice.
    Defendant did not establish any connection between the witnesses’ knowledge and
    Defendant’s own mens rea at trial. Without this connection, the district court could
    reasonably determine that the witnesses’ knowledge would confuse the jury as to the
    critical issue it was tasked with deciding—whether Defendant knew spice was illegal.
    Therefore, the district court did not abuse its discretion in limiting the non-party
    witnesses’ testimony.
    B.
    29
    Defendant also challenges the district court’s reliance on Agent Lewis’s
    conflicting testimony in denying Defendant’s motion to suppress.               According to
    Defendant, the district court “should have considered the conflicting testimony of Special
    Agent Lewis [and therefore] granted the motion for reconsideration.” Appellant’s Br. at
    17. But even when there are “serious questions about the credibility of some of the
    government’s witnesses . . . it is for the [factfinder] and not the appellate court to weigh
    the evidence and judge the credibility of the witnesses.” United States v. Wilson, 
    118 F.3d 228
    , 236 (4th Cir. 1997).       Unlike the appellate court, the factfinder has “the
    opportunity to observe the witnesses, listen to their testimony, and [is] in the best position
    to make the credibility finding.” See United States v. Dagnan, 293 F. App’x 205, 207
    (4th Cir. 2008) (unpublished opinion). Despite the inconsistencies which existed among
    Agent Lewis’s grand jury testimony, suppression hearing testimony, and in the final
    typewritten report, it was ultimately for the district court to observe Agent Lewis and
    weigh the credibility of testimony at the hearing. Defendant has presented no evidence to
    suggest that the district court failed to meet its obligation, and there is no basis for us to
    conclude the district court erred in crediting Agent Lewis’s testimony. See United States
    v. Friedemann, 
    210 F.3d 227
    , 230 (4th Cir. 2000).
    C.
    Defendant next argues that the prosecutor improperly relied upon what he views as
    the misleading testimony of Inspector Sylvester in its closing argument, and that the
    district court erred by failing to cure this improper argument. Defendant did not raise this
    argument below. When, as here, a defendant fails to object to an improper closing
    30
    argument at trial, this Court’s review is limited to plain error. United States v. Hale, 
    857 F.3d 158
    , 171 (4th Cir. 2017). Under this circumscribed standard of review, we reject
    Defendant’s argument.
    Improper closing arguments by a prosecutor “may so infect the trial with
    unfairness as to make the resulting conviction a denial of due process.” United States v.
    Lighty, 
    616 F.3d 321
     (4th Cir. 2010) (citations and alterations omitted). To determine
    whether a prosecutor’s argument violated a defendant’s due process rights, this Court
    examines: “(1) whether the remarks were, in fact, improper, and, (2) if so, whether the
    improper remarks so prejudiced the defendant’s substantial rights that the defendant was
    denied a fair trial.” 
    Id.
     In the context of using false testimony, prosecutorial misconduct
    occurs “not only where the prosecution uses perjured testimony to support its case, but
    also where it uses evidence which it knows creates a false impression of a material fact.”
    Hamric v. Bailey, 
    386 F.2d 390
    , 394 (4th Cir. 1967); see also United States v. Cargill, 17
    F. App’x 214, 224 (4th Cir. 2001) (unpublished opinion).
    The Analogue Act renders it a crime to knowingly distribute a controlled
    substance. 
    18 U.S.C. § 841
    (a)(1). In McFadden v. United States, the Supreme Court
    provided two methods by which the knowledge element may be satisfied: (1) by
    “showing that the defendant knew he possessed a substance listed on the [federal drug]
    schedules,” and (2) by showing that the defendant “knew the identity of the substance
    possessed.” 
    135 S. Ct. 2298
    , 2304 (2015). Under the second method, “ignorance of the
    law is typically no defense[.]” 
    Id.
    31
    During Defendant’s custodial interrogation, Defendant stated that he believed
    spice was “‘legal in Virginia” but “not for the feds.” J.A. 147. At trial, Inspector
    Sylvester did not mention that Defendant thought spice was legal in Virginia. Instead,
    Inspector Sylvester testified that Defendant’s “understanding was that [spice] was illegal
    under federal law.” J.A. 343. Defendant did not object, but Defendant did cross-examine
    Sylvester using the full statement.        During closing arguments, the prosecutor
    reemphasized that Defendant “told agents [spice] was illegal.” J.A. 1148.
    Defendant argues that district court plainly erred because Inspector Sylvester’s
    statements were misleading testimony, and it was thus improper for the prosecutor to rely
    on them.    We disagree.     First, Inspector Sylvester’s statement was literally true.
    Defendant had in fact stated that spice was illegal under federal law. Though Inspector
    Sylvester omitted Defendant’s statement that spice was “legal in Virginia,” this omission
    is immaterial to the knowledge element of the Analogue Act, 
    18 U.S.C. § 841
    (a)(1). To
    the extent that the government sought to prove Defendant’s knowledge under the first
    McFadden method, it is simply irrelevant whether Defendant believed spice was legal
    under Virginia law. Instead, what is relevant is that Defendant knew spice was listed on
    the federal drug schedules. To the extent that the government sought to prove knowledge
    under the second McFadden method, all that is pertinent is that Defendant knew the
    identity of the controlled substance.    Because Inspector Sylvester’s testimony was
    32
    literally true, and any omission was immaterial, the district court did not plainly err in
    failing to take corrective action. 4
    V.
    In sum, the district court improperly denied Defendant’s motions to suppress and
    to reconsider suppression. Additionally, the district court erred by failing to conduct an
    in camera review before denying Defendant’s motions to produce and to reconsider
    production. For these reasons, we reverse Defendant’s conviction on all five counts. As
    such, this case is remanded for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
    REVERSED AND REMANDED
    4
    Defendant also argues that the district court erred by failing to grant his Rule 29
    motion for acquittal. Because we vacate Defendant’s conviction, we decline to address
    this argument.
    33