Christine Seney v. Rent-a-Center, Inc. , 738 F.3d 631 ( 2013 )


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  •                               PUBLISHED
    UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
    FOR THE FOURTH CIRCUIT
    No. 13-1064
    CHRISTINE SENEY, Individually and as Parent and Next Friend
    of I.S. and N.S.; ANTWAN R. SENEY,
    Plaintiffs - Appellants,
    v.
    RENT-A-CENTER, INC.; RENT-A-CENTER EAST, INC.,
    Defendants - Appellees.
    Appeal from the United States District Court for the District of
    Maryland, at Baltimore.      James K. Bredar, District Judge.
    (1:12-cv-02347-JKB)
    Argued:   October 31, 2013            Decided:   December 11, 2013
    Before MOTZ and AGEE, Circuit Judges, and Joseph F. ANDERSON,
    Jr., United States District Judge for the District of South
    Carolina, sitting by designation.
    Affirmed by published opinion. Judge Motz wrote the opinion, in
    which Judge Agee and Judge Anderson joined.
    ARGUED: Daniel Warren Whitney, Sr., WHITNEY & BOGRIS LLP,
    Towson, Maryland, for Appellants. James Charles Mehigan, WILSON
    ELSER MOSKOWITZ EDELMAN & DICKER LLP, Washington, D.C., for
    Appellees.  ON BRIEF: Gerald S. Gaetano, WHITNEY & BOGRIS LLP,
    Towson, Maryland, for Appellants.    Peter A. Coleman, WILSON
    ELSER MOSKOWITZ EDELMAN & DICKER LLP, Baltimore, Maryland, for
    Appellees.
    DIANA GRIBBON MOTZ, Circuit Judge:
    Christine    and   Antwan   Seney    appeal   the     district   court’s
    order compelling arbitration of their breach of warranty claim
    under the Magnuson-Moss Warranty Act, 15 U.S.C. § 2301 et seq.
    (2006).   For the reasons that follow, we affirm.
    I.
    In March 2012, the Seneys entered into a “Rental-Purchase
    Agreement” with Rent-A-Center, Inc. (“RAC”) for a wooden trundle
    bed and mattress.       In that contract, the Seneys agreed to rent
    the bed for two weeks, with an option to renew the lease.                   If
    the couple leased the bed for an additional six months, RAC
    would transfer title to them.            The contract also contained a
    purchase option.     By exercising the option, the Seneys could buy
    the bed before six months had passed.
    Pursuant to this contract, RAC retained the manufacturer’s
    warranty to the bed.       RAC did provide, in the rental contract,
    its own warranty to repair, replace, and service the bed during
    the term of the lease.           In that contract, the parties also
    agreed to submit any contract dispute to binding arbitration.
    In April 2012, RAC delivered the bed to the Seneys’ home
    and assembled it in their son’s bedroom.           Within a week, the boy
    complained   of   itchiness   and   pain.     A    doctor    diagnosed      his
    condition    as   bedbug   bites,   and    Mrs.    Seney    called    RAC    to
    2
    complain.        The company returned to the home and replaced the
    bed’s mattress.           Workers, however, left behind the bedframe,
    which    apparently        was     also       infested     with       bedbugs.            The
    infestation continued, and Mrs. Seney complained again.                                   This
    time,    RAC    removed    both    the    mattress       and    the    frame,       but    not
    before dragging them through the Seneys’ home.                              The bed shed
    bugs,    and    the    infestation       spread.         RAC   paid       for   a   partial
    fumigation, but the company refused to treat the entire house.
    The Seneys filed suit in Maryland state court, alleging a
    breach   of     warranty    by    RAC    in    violation       of   the     Magnuson-Moss
    Warranty Act (“MMWA” or “the Act”).                      RAC removed the case to
    federal court and filed a motion to compel arbitration.                                    In
    response, the Seneys claimed that their dispute could not be
    submitted to arbitration, at least insofar as that arbitration
    was binding.          Relying on regulations promulgated by the Federal
    Trade Commission (“FTC”) pursuant to its authority to interpret
    the   MMWA,     the    Seneys     maintained      that    RAC       could    not    require
    binding arbitration as part of a consumer warranty.                                  See 16
    C.F.R. § 703.5(j) (2013).
    The      district    court    rejected       the    argument        that      the   FTC
    regulations ban binding arbitration, and so granted RAC’s motion
    to compel arbitration.             The Seneys noted a timely appeal.                        We
    review a district court order compelling arbitration de novo.
    3
    See Peabody Holding Co. v. United Mine Workers of Am., Int’l
    Union, 
    665 F.3d 96
    , 101 (4th Cir. 2012).
    II.
    The Seneys contend that the district court erred in holding
    that the FTC regulations interpreting the MMWA contain no ban on
    binding arbitration.          They maintain that the court conducted “an
    incomplete legal analysis.”              Reply Br. 1.        Specifically, they
    maintain that the court failed to recognize that, while the FTC
    regulations do permit binding arbitration after the parties have
    engaged in informal dispute resolution, the regulations prohibit
    binding arbitration before the parties have so engaged.                        Careful
    examination of the MMWA, and the FTC regulations promulgated
    pursuant to it, persuade us that the Seneys are correct.
    Congress       enacted    the   MMWA      in    response   to     a     swell   of
    consumer complaints regarding the inadequacy of warranties to
    protect    consumers’      interests.          See    H.R.   Rep.      No.    93-1107,
    reprinted in 1974 U.S.C.C.A.N. 7702, 7708–11.                       By passing the
    Act, Congress sought to “improve the adequacy of information
    available      to    consumers,      prevent         deception,        and     improve
    competition in the marketing” of goods.                  15 U.S.C. § 2302(a).
    To further these goals, Congress provided a private right of
    action    to   consumers      “damaged    by   the    failure     of    a    supplier,
    warrantor, or service contractor to comply with . . . a written
    4
    warranty,     implied     warranty,          or       service       contract.”           
    Id. § 2310(d)(1).
    Under the MMWA, consumers may sue in court or submit to
    “informal     dispute      settlement           procedures”           in   advance        of
    litigation.     
    Id. § 2310(a)(3).
                  The statute does not define or
    describe    “informal     dispute      settlement           procedures.”         Instead,
    Congress     provided     that        the       FTC        would     specify     “minimum
    requirements”      for        informal          dispute          resolution.             
    Id. § 2310(a)(2).
        To that end, the FTC has promulgated a host of
    regulations     describing       a    variety         of     “mechanisms”      to     which
    consumers may be required to resort before pursuing their claims
    in court.    16 C.F.R. § 703.1 et seq.
    Pursuant     to     those       regulations,            a     “mechanism”      is    an
    “informal    dispute     settlement         procedure        which    is   incorporated
    into the terms of a written warranty.”                      
    Id. § 703.1(e).
            The FTC
    has interpreted the term broadly:                     “mechanisms” encompass all
    nonjudicial       dispute            resolution             procedures,        including
    arbitration.      See    40    Fed.     Reg.      60,168,        60,210–11     (Dec.     31,
    1975).      Of importance here, the FTC regulations provide that
    decisions of these informal dispute resolution mechanisms must
    be nonbinding.         16 C.F.R. § 703.5(j).                     In other words, the
    regulations limit warrantors’ ability to insist in their written
    warranties that consumers submit to binding arbitration as part
    of a mechanism (an informal dispute settlement procedure).                                40
    5
    Fed. Reg. at 60,211 (“[R]eference within the written warranty to
    any binding, non-judicial remedy is prohibited by . . . Rule
    [703] and the Act.”).
    The FTC regulations, however, distinguish between so-called
    “pre-dispute” and “post-dispute” binding arbitration.                 See Davis
    v. So. Energy Homes, Inc., 
    305 F.3d 1268
    , 1280 n.8 (11th Cir.
    2002); Walton v. Rose Mobile Homes, LLC, 
    298 F.3d 470
    , 481-82
    (5th Cir. 2002) (King, C.J., dissenting). 1               “Pre-dispute” binding
    arbitration refers to parties’ employment of binding arbitration
    as   the    exclusive    means   of   resolving     disputes,    i.e.,     without
    first obtaining a nonbinding “mechanism” decision.                  See 
    Walton, 298 F.3d at 481
    –82 (King, C.J., dissenting); see also 40 Fed.
    Reg. at 60,210.         In general, the FTC regulations prohibit “pre-
    dispute” binding arbitration.               16 C.F.R. § 703.5(j); 40 Fed.
    Reg.   at   60,210.      By   contrast,     the    regulations   permit     “post-
    dispute” binding arbitration.           40 Fed. Reg. at 60,211.            “Post-
    dispute”     arbitration      takes   place       after   parties   have     first
    1
    We recognize that the terms “pre-dispute” and “post-
    dispute,” which the parties and other courts have consistently
    used, are somewhat misleading.   Obviously, if the parties seek
    to resolve a disagreement -- through a “mechanism” or otherwise
    –- they have a dispute. But however described, the principle is
    this: the FTC regulations ban a supplier from requiring binding
    arbitration in a written warranty as the exclusive means of
    dispute resolution. See 40 Fed. Reg. at 60,210. If the parties
    first engage in some form of nonbinding dispute resolution,
    however, the regulations permit the parties to then engage in
    binding arbitration.
    6
    mediated   their      dispute       informally        through    a   nonbinding
    “mechanism.”        See     
    Walton, 298 F.3d at 482
       (King,     C.J.,
    dissenting);   40    Fed.    Reg.     at   60,211.      Thus,    under   the   FTC
    regulations, if the parties first engage in nonbinding dispute
    resolution, a warrantor may then require a consumer dissatisfied
    with the “mechanism” decision to submit to binding arbitration.
    40 Fed. Reg. at 60,211 (“[N]othing in the Rule . . . precludes
    the use of any other remedies [e.g., binding arbitration] by the
    parties following a Mechanism decision.”) (emphasis added). 2
    Accordingly, the district court erred in holding that the
    FTC regulations contain no ban on binding arbitration.                     The FTC
    ban is intricate and limited, but it certainly exists.
    2
    Even within the category of “pre-dispute” binding
    arbitration, the FTC’s ban is not absolute.          Although a
    warrantor may not include a “pre-dispute” binding arbitration
    clause within the terms of a written warranty, 16 C.F.R.
    § 703.5(j), the parties may agree to “pre-dispute” binding
    arbitration in some other document. See 40 Fed. Reg. at 60,211
    (“[Although] reference within the written warranty to any
    binding non-judicial remedy is prohibited . . . , nothing in the
    Rule precludes the parties from agreeing to use [binding
    arbitration].”) (emphasis added).     Thus, if after signing a
    warranty the parties agree to employ binding arbitration as
    their only means of redress, the FTC regulations do not ban that
    preference. 
    Id. This additional
    exception to the general rule
    is not implicated in this case.
    7
    III.
    That the ban exists, however, does not resolve this appeal.
    The   Seneys     must      also    establish           that      the   ban     on    arbitration
    applies to their rental agreement with RAC.
    Before addressing that most fundamental question, we note
    that, rather than focusing on it, the parties argue at length
    about the permissibility of the FTC ban.                                In doing so, they
    expose    an    important         tension        between         two   major      doctrines       of
    statutory interpretation.                 In Shearson/American Express, Inc. v.
    McMahon, the Supreme Court instructed courts to evaluate the
    arbitrability        of     statutory        rights         in    light      of     the    liberal
    “federal       policy      favoring        arbitration.”               
    482 U.S. 220
    ,    226
    (1987).    McMahon established that if a statute is silent with
    respect        to         arbitration,           courts           should          presume         its
    permissibility.             
    Id. at 226–27.
              McMahon,      however,         did    not
    address whether agencies should also presume the permissibility
    of    arbitration.             The        FTC,        the     agency      that       promulgated
    regulations         interpreting          the     MMWA,       did      not    employ       a     pro-
    arbitration presumption.                  See 40 Fed. Reg. at 60,210.                       Rather,
    as    explained       above,       it     concluded          that      pre-dispute          binding
    arbitration         was     impermissible             under      the    Act.         16        C.F.R.
    § 703.5(j).          Pursuant        to     the       Supreme       Court’s       directive        in
    Chevron,   U.S.A.,          Inc.     v.    Natural          Resources        Defense      Council,
    8
    Inc., that interpretation, if reasonable, should control.                            
    467 U.S. 837
    , 842–43 (1984).
    The way in which Chevron squares with McMahon, however, is
    uncertain, and courts have divided on the question.                             Compare
    
    Davis, 305 F.3d at 1277
    –81 (concluding that courts should assess
    the FTC’s arbitration ban under Chevron, but that the ban is
    unreasonable in light of McMahon) with 
    Walton, 298 F.3d at 475
    –
    78 (holding that the McMahon presumption renders the otherwise-
    ambiguous MMWA clear, obviating the need for Chevron deference)
    and Kolev           v.    Euromotors    W./The     Auto   Gallery,   
    658 F.3d 1024
    ,
    1025–30 (9th Cir. 2011), opinion withdrawn, 
    676 F.3d 867
    , 867
    (9th       Cir.     2012)      (explaining   that     courts   engage      in   Chevron
    analysis, pursuant to which the FTC’s regulation is permissible;
    the FTC need not apply the McMahon presumption because agencies
    need not subscribe to judicial canons).
    We need not enter the fray.                 This is so because the FTC ban
    on binding arbitration does not apply to the Seneys’ contract
    with       RAC. 3        The   FTC   regulations    limit   suppliers’     ability    to
    3
    The parties initially failed to brief the applicability of
    the FTC arbitration ban to the Seneys’ contract with RAC; we
    requested and received supplemental statements of authority on
    the issue.    In their submission, the Seneys contend that we
    cannot (or should not) address the question because no party
    raised it. The contention is unpersuasive. See Kamen v. Kemper
    Fin. Servs., Inc., 
    500 U.S. 90
    , 99 (1991) (“When an issue . . .
    is properly before the court, the court is not limited to the
    particular legal theories advanced by the parties, but rather
    (Continued)
    9
    require     binding    arbitration    of    “written    warranties”       in   sales
    agreements: they do not reach warranties included in leases.
    Because the Seneys rely on a warranty in a lease (not a sales)
    agreement,     their     contract    falls    outside    the   FTC    regulation
    banning binding arbitration.
    A.
    The    FTC   regulations      clearly    state    that   if    a    supplier
    provides for dispute resolution by way of a “mechanism,” the
    “[d]ecisions of the [m]echanism shall not be legally binding.”
    16 C.F.R. § 703.5(j).        At the same time, the FTC ban is far from
    sweeping.     The regulations define a “mechanism” as “an informal
    dispute     settlement    procedure    which     is    incorporated       into   the
    terms of a written warranty.”              
    Id. § 703.1(e).
        In other words,
    the   FTC    ban   applies    only    to     dispute    settlement       procedures
    included in a “written warranty.”
    The FTC regulations specifically define the term “written
    warranty” as:
    retains the independent power to identify and apply the proper
    construction of governing law.”); accord United States ex rel.
    May v. Purdue Pharma, L.P., -- F.3d -- (4th Cir. 2013) [No. 12-
    2278, argued Sept. 20, 2013].    Indeed, the Supreme Court has
    expressly held that a court may consider an issue like this one,
    which is “antecedent to and ultimately dispositive of the
    dispute before it, even an issue the parties fail to identify
    and brief.”   U.S. Nat’l Bank of Or. v. Indep. Ins. Agents of
    Am., Inc., 
    508 U.S. 439
    , 447 (1993) (internal quotation marks
    and alteration omitted).
    10
    (1) Any written affirmation of fact or written
    promise made in connection with the sale of a consumer
    product by a supplier to a buyer which relates to the
    nature of the material or workmanship and affirms or
    promises that such material or workmanship is defect
    free or will meet a specified level of performance
    over a specified period of time, or
    (2) Any undertaking in writing in connection with the
    sale by a supplier of a consumer product to refund,
    repair, replace, or take other remedial action with
    respect to such product in the event that such product
    fails to meet the specifications set forth in the
    undertaking, which written affirmation, promise or
    undertaking becomes part of the basis of the bargain
    between a supplier and a buyer for purposes other than
    resale of such product.
    
    Id. § 703.1(c)
    (emphasis added).          Thus, as the definition makes
    plain, for purposes of the FTC regulations, a “written warranty”
    must implicate a “sale.”      A promise -- even a written promise --
    does not constitute a “written warranty” under the regulations
    if it is not made “in connection with a sale” or is not “part of
    the basis of the bargain between a supplier and a buyer.”                   See
    
    id. Here, the
    promise that RAC made to the Seneys was not “in
    connection with a sale.”      The Uniform Commercial Code specifies
    that a “sale” consists of “the passing of title from the seller
    to the buyer for a price.”         U.C.C. § 2-106(1) (1977).             In its
    contract   with   the   Seneys,   RAC    did   not   pass   title   to    them.
    Rather, RAC expressly retained title to the bed unless and until
    the Seneys purchased the bed or renewed their lease for six
    11
    months.   The Seneys did not exercise either of these options,
    and thus title remained with RAC.
    For the same reasons, the Seneys do not constitute “buyers”
    of the bed.       As the Seventh Circuit has noted, a plaintiff
    cannot purport to be a “buyer” before title has passed to him.
    See Voelker v. Porsche Cars N.A., Inc., 
    353 F.3d 516
    , 523 (7th
    Cir. 2003).   That a plaintiff holds a purchase option does not
    alter the analysis.    Until a plaintiff exercises his option, he
    remains an option-holder, not a buyer.     See 
    id. Here, again,
    the Seneys never exercised their option.    At the time of suit,
    RAC -- not the Seneys -- held title to the bed, and nothing in
    the record suggests that the Seneys subsequently took title.
    A different result might obtain if the lease of the bed
    were the “economic equivalent” of a sale.       See Henderson v.
    Benson-Hartman Motors, Inc., 
    33 Pa. D. & C.3d 6
    , 24-26 (Pa. Ct.
    Com. Pl. 1983).    This is so because a court might then conclude
    that there is no economic difference between a lease and a sale
    when, for instance, a lessee pays an amount in rent equal to the
    full purchase price of the item, including interest.    See J.L.
    Teel Co. v. Houston United Sales, Inc., 
    491 So. 2d 851
    , 858–59
    (Miss. 1986); Sawyer v. Pioneer Leasing Corp., 
    428 S.W.2d 46
    ,
    53-54 (Ark. 1968); U.C.C. § 1-203.     In that circumstance, the
    transaction is effectively the same as a sale in which a buyer
    purchases an item but pays for it over time.    Of course, with a
    12
    lease, title remains with the lessor, while with a sale, the
    buyer acquires ownership.      But this difference has not prevented
    some courts from applying the law of sales to this very specific
    class of leases, even in the MMWA context.              See 
    Henderson, 33 Pa. D. & C.3d at 25
    –26.
    Here,    however,   the   Seneys’   lease    was   not   the   economic
    equivalent of a sale.      Rather, their contract with RAC provided
    that the Seneys were not required to pay an amount equal to the
    purchase price of the bed.        To be sure, the Seneys could have
    exercised their renewal or purchase options, at which point they
    might have become so bound.          But they had no obligation to
    exercise their options -- nor did they elect to do so.                Their
    contract with RAC required only that the Seneys rent the bed for
    two weeks, for an amount far below the purchase price.               Because
    this transaction bears no indicia of a sale, we cannot treat it
    as such.     Thus, the FTC arbitration ban simply does not apply to
    the Seneys’ rental agreement with RAC.
    B.
    In the hope of convincing us otherwise, the Seneys direct
    us to a host of cases, most of which hold that lessees are
    appropriate plaintiffs under the MMWA. 4         This may be so.    But the
    4
    See 
    Voelker, 353 F.3d at 525
    ; Cohen v. AM Gen. Corp., 
    264 F. Supp. 2d 616
    , 621 (N.D. Ill. 2003); Am. Honda Motor Co. v.
    Cerasani, 
    955 So. 2d 543
    , 549 (Fla. 2007); O’Connor v. BMW N.
    (Continued)
    13
    fact that the Seneys may (or may not) have a cause of action
    under the statute does not answer the question here:                         must the
    Seneys     initially    submit       that        cause   of   action   to     binding
    arbitration?
    All of the cases cited by the Seneys involve facts very
    different from those in the case at hand.                         In every case on
    which    the   Seneys    rely,   a     lessor       bought    a    product    from   a
    manufacturer and obtained a manufacturer’s warranty.                      The lessor
    then assigned the warranty to a lessee, who subsequently sued
    the   manufacturer      when   the    product        proved   defective.        These
    courts have concluded that the lessee, who had been assigned the
    manufacturer’s warranty, was entitled to bring a cause of action
    against the manufacturer.            They reasoned that the lessee held a
    “written    warranty”    by    virtue       of    the    manufacturer’s      warranty,
    made in connection with a sale.                  They found it unimportant that
    the lessee did not participate in the sale.                       Rather, according
    to these courts, for MMWA purposes, as long as the manufacturer
    Am., LLC, 
    905 So. 2d 235
    , 240 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 2005); Mesa v.
    BMW N. Am., LLC, 
    904 So. 2d 450
    , 453 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 2005);
    Mangold v. Nisson N. Am., Inc., 
    809 N.E.2d 251
    , 253-55 (Ill.
    App. Ct. 2004); Dekelaita v. Nissan Motor Corp., 
    799 N.E.2d 367
    ,
    373-374 (Ill. App. Ct. 2003); Ryan v. Am. Honda Motor Co., 
    896 A.2d 454
    , 456 (N.J. 2006); Szubski v. Mercedes-Benz, U.S.A.,
    L.L.C., 
    796 N.E.2d 81
    , 88 (Ohio Ct. Com. Pl. 2003); Peterson v.
    Volkswagen Am., Inc., 
    679 N.W.2d 840
    , 846 (Wis. Ct. App. 2004);
    but see Parrot v. DaimlerChrysler Corp., 
    130 P.3d 530
    , 536
    (Ariz. 2006) (lessees may not sue under the MMWA); DiCintio v.
    DaimlerChrysler Corp., 
    768 N.E.2d 1121
    , 1127 (N.Y. 2002) (same).
    14
    made a written promise “in connection with a sale” to someone,
    and that someone assigned the promise to the lessee, the lessee
    could sue the manufacturer.
    We pass no judgment on the holdings of these cases.              Right
    or wrong, they are not helpful here.            The Seneys do not sue on
    the manufacturer’s warranty.          Indeed, they cannot -- RAC never
    assigned it to them.        The Seneys can and do sue only on RAC’s
    warranty.    But that warranty –- to service the bed –- is utterly
    divorced from a sale.      In the cases relied on by the Seneys, the
    manufacturer’s warranty accompanied a sale:           the one between the
    manufacturer and the lessor.          Here, RAC’s warranty accompanied
    no sale; the Seneys never bought the bed.
    Because the Seneys have not linked RAC’s warranty to any
    sale, they have failed to establish the existence of a “written
    warranty” under FTC regulations.            Accordingly, their attempt to
    rely    on   these     regulations,    which     presuppose   a     “written
    warranty,”    is     unavailing.      For    this   reason,   the    binding
    arbitration clause is enforceable, and so the judgment of the
    district court is
    AFFIRMED.
    15
    

Document Info

Docket Number: 19-1511

Citation Numbers: 738 F.3d 631, 2013 WL 6487479, 2013 U.S. App. LEXIS 24615

Judges: Motz, Agee, Anderson

Filed Date: 12/11/2013

Precedential Status: Precedential

Modified Date: 11/5/2024

Authorities (19)

Dekelaita v. Nissan Motor Corp. in USA , 343 Ill. App. 3d 801 ( 2003 )

United States National Bank v. Independent Insurance Agents ... , 113 S. Ct. 2173 ( 1993 )

O'Connor v. Bmw of North America, LLC , 2005 Fla. App. LEXIS 9667 ( 2005 )

Peterson v. Volkswagen of America, Inc. , 272 Wis. 2d 676 ( 2004 )

Mesa v. BMW OF NORTH AMERICA, LLC , 2005 Fla. App. LEXIS 6504 ( 2005 )

Chevron U. S. A. Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, ... , 104 S. Ct. 2778 ( 1984 )

Peabody Holding Co. v. United Mine Workers of America , 665 F.3d 96 ( 2012 )

Parrot v. DaimlerChrysler Corp. , 212 Ariz. 255 ( 2006 )

Kolev v. Euromotors West/The Auto Gallery , 658 F.3d 1024 ( 2011 )

AMERICAN HONDA MOTOR CO., INC. v. Cerasani , 32 Fla. L. Weekly Supp. 131 ( 2007 )

Mangold v. Nissan North America, Inc. , 347 Ill. App. 3d 1008 ( 2004 )

JL Teel Co., Inc. v. Houston United Sales , 1986 Miss. LEXIS 2460 ( 1986 )

Kamen v. Kemper Financial Services, Inc. , 111 S. Ct. 1711 ( 1991 )

Cohen v. AM General Corp. , 264 F. Supp. 2d 616 ( 2003 )

Michael Shane Davis v. Southern Energy , 305 F.3d 1268 ( 2002 )

daniel-j-voelker-v-porsche-cars-north-america-inc-a-delaware , 353 F.3d 516 ( 2003 )

Thomas E. Walton Le'ellen Walton v. Rose Mobile Homes Llc, ... , 298 F.3d 470 ( 2002 )

Kolev v. Euromotors west/the Auto Gallery , 676 F.3d 867 ( 2012 )

Shearson/American Express Inc. v. McMahon , 107 S. Ct. 2332 ( 1987 )

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