United States v. Raibley, Paul T. ( 2001 )


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  • In the
    United States Court of Appeals
    For the Seventh Circuit
    No. 99-3752
    UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
    Plaintiff-Appellee,
    v.
    PAUL T. RAIBLEY,
    Defendant-Appellant.
    Appeal from the United States District Court
    for the Central District of Illinois.
    No. 98 CR 40058--Joe B. McDade, Chief Judge.
    Argued March 31, 2000--Decided March 21, 2001
    Before POSNER, RIPPLE, and ROVNER, Circuit Judges.
    ROVNER, Circuit Judge. Police stopped Paul
    Raibley for questioning after he was seen
    surreptitiously videotaping a seventeen year-old
    Wal-Mart employee. A consensual search of his
    pickup truck produced a small quantity of
    marijuana and two videotapes. The police later
    took a look at the tapes, purportedly with
    Raibley’s consent, and discovered pornographic
    scenes on one of the tapes involving two young
    girls. After unsuccessfully moving to suppress
    the videotapes and other evidence obtained as a
    result of the investigatory stop, Raibley pleaded
    guilty to the production of child pornography, in
    violation of 18 U.S.C. sec. 2251(a), (d). He
    appeals, contending that the police lacked
    grounds on which to stop and question him under
    Terry v. Ohio, 
    392 U.S. 1
    , 
    88 S. Ct. 1868
     (1968),
    and that they also lacked his consent to view the
    videotapes. We affirm.
    I.
    Aledo, Illinois is a town of about 4,000
    people, situated approximately ten miles east of
    the Mississippi River and some twenty miles south
    of the Quad-Cities area. On October 10, 1998, the
    manager of the Aledo Wal-Mart store saw a man,
    later identified as Raibley, sitting in a small,
    white pick-up truck in the store’s parking lot,
    covertly videotaping a seventeen year-old store
    worker as she walked across the lot. When Raibley
    realized he had been noticed, he drove away in a
    hurry. The police were summoned.
    Local police officer Eric Lindburg arrived and
    spoke with the store manager. In addition to the
    facts just described, Lindburg ascertained that,
    so far as the store manager knew, Raibley was a
    stranger to the young woman he had been
    videotaping. In fact, the subject of the taping
    had not even realized what was happening. The
    manager supplied Lindburg with a description of
    Raibley as well as a license plate number, "FIN
    98." A check on the plate number yielded no
    information. Lindburg left the store and began to
    drive around town hoping to locate the pickup
    truck.
    About 30 minutes later, Lindburg returned to
    the Wal-Mart and spotted an unoccupied white
    pickup truck in the parking lot bearing the
    license plate number "FINS 98". Lindburg ran a
    check on that plate number and learned that the
    truck was registered to a man in Collinsville,
    Illinois (near St. Louis). Leaving his marked
    patrol vehicle parked in full view near the front
    of the store, Lindburg walked inside to ask the
    manager whether anyone had seen Raibley. While he
    was speaking with the manager, Lindburg looked
    outside and saw the white pickup leaving the lot
    at some thirty to forty miles per hour. Lindburg
    ran back to his car and radioed for help in
    stopping the truck, exclaiming, "He’s taking off
    from me. He’s westbound on Route 17."
    Mercer County Sheriff’s Deputy Sean Hast heard
    Lindburg’s broadcast and intercepted the truck at
    a four-way stop in downtown Aledo, a mile or so
    away from the Wal-Mart. Believing that Raibley
    was wanted for fleeing and eluding a police
    officer, Hast had Raibley out of the truck and
    spread-eagled against the vehicle, and was about
    to place him in handcuffs, when Lindburg arrived
    a few moments later. Lindburg informed Hast that
    he only wanted to question Raibley. An
    embarrassed Hast apologized to Raibley and left
    the scene. Lindburg advised Raibley that he was
    not under arrest. When Lindburg asked him whether
    he would mind pulling his truck into a parking
    space around the corner so that the officer could
    speak with him further, Raibley responded, "No
    problem." Lindburg would later testify that he
    wanted to question Raibley because he believed
    that Raibley had committed the state offense of
    stalking when he surreptitiously videotaped the
    young Wal-Mart employee. See 720 ILCS 5/12-7.3.
    Raibley moved his truck as requested, and
    Lindburg parked next to him. Both men then got
    out of their vehicles. Lindburg asked him why he
    had been videotaping young women at the Wal-Mart.
    Raibley answered that he had gone to the store to
    purchase some goods for a birthday party he was
    attending, had noticed a pretty young girl, and
    decided to tape her. He did that sometimes,
    Raibley told the officer, although he knew it was
    wrong.
    Lindburg’s attention turned to the truck. He
    asked Raibley whether there was anything illegal
    in the truck. Raibley said there was not, that
    "all he had was some videotapes." Suppr. Tr. 22.
    Lindburg then solicited Raibley’s consent to
    search the truck, and Raibley gave it. Hast
    returned to the scene at Lindburg’s request and
    stood by, watching Raibley, while Lindburg
    searched the truck. Inside of an open black bag
    on the passenger seat, Lindburg discovered a film
    canister containing what appeared to be
    marijuana. Lindburg proceeded to place Raibley
    under arrest.
    Once Raibley was in handcuffs and apprised of
    his rights, Lindburg completed the search of his
    truck. He found a "hitter pipe" (a device used to
    smoke cannabis), some women’s underwear, a
    pornographic magazine, a video camera, and two
    mini-VHS videotapes, one of the cases for which
    had been marked "Aledo girls."
    Lindburg inquired as to the subject of the
    tapes, and Raibley told him that they contained,
    inter alia, scenes from a fishing trip. When
    Lindburg asked whether the tapes contained any
    pornography, including child pornography, a
    nervous Raibley said that they might contain
    footage of him having sex with adult females.
    Suspecting that the tapes might contain child
    pornography, Lindburg used his cellular telephone
    to contact Mercer County State’s Attorney Baron
    Heintz and ask whether he could view the tapes.
    Heintz advised Lindburg that he could look at the
    tapes so long as Raibley did not object. Lindburg
    again asked Raibley whether the tapes contained
    any adult or child pornography, and Raibley told
    him that there was "nothing on there" except for
    footage of himself with his girlfriend. Suppr.
    Tr. 34. Lindburg said that he would like to take
    a look at the tapes anyway. In response, Raibley
    "just kind of looked away and shrugged his
    shoulders." 
    Id.
     Lindburg interpreted this as an
    expression of consent. 
    Id.
    At the Mercer County Sheriff’s office, where
    Raibley was booked on charges of possessing
    marijuana and drug paraphernalia, Lindburg began
    to view the videotapes. He looked at the tape
    labeled "Aledo girls" first. It contained footage
    of the seventeen year-old Wal-Mart employee as
    well as other young women Raibley had filmed at
    the Wal-Mart. It did not contain any pornographic
    material, however.
    Before Lindburg looked at the second tape, a
    jail employee informed him that Raibley wished to
    speak with him. Lindburg recounted his ensuing
    conversation with Raibley as follows:
    Mr. Raibley told me that if I was wanting to view
    those tapes he really didn’t want, you know, he
    just wanted me to see them. He didn’t want a
    whole audience to see them, because he said it
    had pornography of him and his girlfriend on
    there. So he was going to--he wanted me to bring
    the camera back to him so he could show me how to
    view the tape just inside the camera.
    Suppr. Tr. 37. Lindburg declined Raibley’s offer,
    assuring him that only he and another officer
    would look at the tapes. According to Lindburg,
    Raibley acknowledged that he had "a problem,"
    
    id.,
     but said that he only intended to view the
    tapes while masturbating. During this discussion,
    Raibley also indicated that he had sped away from
    the Wal-Mart on the second occasion, when
    Lindburg was present, because he had overheard
    the officer make inquiries about "the guy that
    was videotaping." Suppr. Tr. 38.
    When Lindburg left Raibley and reviewed the
    second videotape, he discovered that it contained
    scenes of two girls, later determined to be ages
    five and seven. These scenes included close-ups
    of their buttocks and breasts; and an adult hand
    could be seen in one of the scenes drawing back
    the underwear of one of the girls to expose her
    genitals. Lindburg observed that the wristwatch
    on the adult hand looked like the watch that
    Raibley was wearing. In subsequent interviews,
    Raibley disclosed the identities of the two
    girls, admitted that he had made the tape, and
    admitted that he had transported the tape across
    state lines.
    After he was indicted for the production of
    child pornography, Raibley moved to suppress the
    videotapes and other physical evidence that
    Lindburg had seized, as well as his post-arrest
    statements. Raibley argued, inter alia, that the
    initial stop effectuated by Hast and Lindburg was
    not supported by a reasonable suspicion that he
    had committed a crime. See Terry v. Ohio, 
    supra,
    392 U.S. at 21-22
    , 
    88 S. Ct. at 1880
    . He further
    argued that, because Lindburg had not obtained a
    warrant authorizing him to view the tapes taken
    from Raibley’s truck, see Walter v. United
    States, 
    447 U.S. 649
    , 
    100 S. Ct. 2395
     (1980)
    (plurality), the review of those tapes was
    unlawful--unless Raibley had given Lindburg
    permission to look at the tapes. Raibley
    contended that there was insufficient proof that
    he did give his consent.
    The district court conducted an evidentiary
    hearing, and at the conclusion of that hearing,
    Judge McDade concluded that the stop of Raibley’s
    vehicle and the review of the videotapes found
    within were both lawful. He concluded, in the
    first instance, that the initial detention of
    Raibley "was a legitimate Terry stop." Suppr. Tr.
    213. As for the videotapes, Judge McDade found
    that Raibley had given his consent to view the
    tape that contained the pornography. He made that
    finding based on the shrug that Raibley had given
    when Lindburg indicated his desire to view the
    two tapes found in the truck, coupled with
    Raibley’s subsequent request, made before
    Lindburg looked at the second, pornographic tape,
    that Lindburg view the tapes privately on the
    camera monitor. Suppr. Tr. 213-14.
    II.
    A.
    Our review of the district court’s decision to
    deny Raibley’s motion to suppress is plenary.
    Ornelas v. United States, 
    517 U.S. 690
    , 699, 
    116 S. Ct. 1657
    , 1663 (1996). Of course, in the
    absence of clear error, we defer to the district
    court’s findings of historical fact as well as
    its credibility assessments. 
    Ibid.
     But the
    ultimate determination of whether the authorities
    violated the defendant’s Fourth Amendment rights
    is one that we review de novo. 
    Ibid.
    The parties agree that the initial stop of
    Raibley’s vehicle amounted to an investigatory
    stop of the kind described in Terry v. Ohio,
    
    supra.
     Terry held that a police officer may stop
    and briefly detain a person for questioning if he
    reasonably suspects "that criminal activity may
    be afoot." 
    392 U.S. at 30
    , 
    88 S. Ct. at 1884-85
    ;
    see 
    id. at 21-22
    , 
    88 S. Ct. at 1880
    ; see also
    Illinois v. Wardlow, 
    528 U.S. 119
    , 123, 
    120 S. Ct. 673
    , 675 (2000); United States v. Sokolow,
    
    490 U.S. 1
    , 7, 
    109 S. Ct. 1581
    , 1585 (1989). A
    Terry stop does not demand the probable cause
    that an arrest would require--that is, the
    circumstances need not establish a "fair
    probability" that the person detained for
    questioning has committed a crime. See Sokolow,
    
    490 U.S. at 7
    , 
    109 S. Ct. at 1585
    , quoting
    Illinois v. Gates, 
    462 U.S. 213
    , 238, 
    103 S. Ct. 2317
    , 2332 (1983). On the other hand, the police
    may not stop an individual for questioning based
    on nothing more than an "inchoate and
    unparticularized suspicion or ’hunch.’" Terry,
    
    392 U.S. at 27
    , 
    88 S. Ct. at 1883
    . "[T]he Fourth
    Amendment requires at least a minimal level of
    objective justification for making the stop."
    Wardlow, 
    528 U.S. at 123
    , 
    120 S. Ct. at 676
    ,
    citing Sokolow, 
    490 U.S. at 7
    , 
    109 S. Ct. at 1585
    . Simply put, the officer must have
    reasonable suspicion, supported by "specific and
    articulable facts," that an individual has
    committed, is committing, or is about to commit,
    a crime. Terry, 
    392 U.S. at 21
    , 
    88 S. Ct. at 1880
    ; see also, e.g., United States v. Brown, 
    188 F.3d 860
    , 864 (7th Cir. 1999).
    As we have noted, Officer Lindburg testified
    that he had Raibley stopped for questioning
    because he suspected that Raibley had committed
    the offense of stalking, in violation of Illinois
    law. The Illinois legislature has defined the
    offense of stalking as follows:
    (a) A person commits stalking when he or she,
    knowingly and without lawful justification, on at
    least 2 separate occasions follows another person
    or places the person under surveillance or any
    combination thereof and:
    (1) at any time transmits a threat to that person
    of immediate or future bodily harm, sexual
    assault, confinement or restraint; or
    (2) places that person in reasonable apprehension
    of immediate or future bodily harm, sexual
    assault, confinement or restraint.
    . . .
    (d) For the purpose of this Section, a defendant
    "places a person under surveillance" by remaining
    present outside the person’s school, place of
    employment, vehicle, other place occupied by the
    person, or residence other than the residence of
    the defendant.
    (e) For the purpose of this Section, "follows
    another person" means (i) to move in relative
    proximity to a person as that person moves from
    place to place or (ii) to remain in relative
    proximity to a person who is stationary or whose
    movements are confined to a small area. "Follows
    another person" does not include a following
    within the residence of the defendant.
    . . . .
    720 ILCS 5/12-7.3. Raibley contends that at the
    time he was detained, the facts known to Lindburg
    did not establish any of the elements of stalking
    as Illinois has defined that offense: there was,
    for example, no indication that Raibley had
    followed or surveilled the seventeen year-old
    Wal-Mart employee he was seen video-taping on
    more than one occasion.
    We readily agree with Raibley that the facts
    known to Lindburg did not, standing alone,
    establish a violation of the stalking statute.
    But Terry does not require proof that a crime has
    occurred; it demands only such facts as are
    necessary to support a reasonable suspicion that
    a crime may have occurred. See Wardlow, 
    528 U.S. at 123
    , 
    120 S. Ct. at 675-76
    ; Sokolow, 
    490 U.S. at 7
    , 
    109 S. Ct. at 1585
    . After all, the purpose
    of a Terry stop is not to accuse, but to
    investigate. Even facts susceptible of an
    innocent construction will support the decision
    to detain an individual momentarily for
    questioning, so long as one may rationally infer
    from "the totality of the circumstances--the
    whole picture," United States v. Cortez, 
    449 U.S. 411
    , 417, 
    101 S. Ct. 690
    , 695 (1981), that the
    person may be involved in criminal activity, see
    Sokolow, 
    490 U.S. at 9-10
    , 
    109 S. Ct. at 1586-87
    .
    Based on what Lindburg learned when he first
    interviewed the Wal-Mart manager and other store
    employees, and when he returned to the store
    after searching the town of Aledo for Raibley’s
    vehicle, we believe that Lindburg had a
    reasonable basis to suspect that Raibley may have
    been engaged in stalking. Lindburg knew that
    Raibley had covertly videotaped a young Wal-Mart
    employee. He also knew that the employee was not
    acquainted with Raibley and had not realized that
    Raibley was taping her. Having been oblivious to
    the videotaping, the employee experienced no
    apprehension of harm. Yet, she obviously had not
    consented to the videotaping. It was entirely
    possible, of course, that Raibley meant the
    subject of his videotaping no harm, nor even to
    put her in fear of such harm. On the other hand,
    Raibley’s behavior was of a kind that could put
    a person in fear of harm, and the fact that he
    fled the Wal-Mart lot upon being noticed tended
    to belie an innocent motive. Moreover, a short
    while later, Raibley returned to the Wal-Mart
    store, a fact that was consistent with the
    possibility he might be following the subject of
    his videotaping. Finally, moments after Lindburg
    parked his cruiser in plain view near the store
    entrance, Raibley sped out of the lot for a
    second time. Unprovoked flight from a police
    officer is suggestive of wrongdoing, Wardlow, 
    528 U.S. at 124
    ; 
    120 S. Ct. at 676
    , and coupled with
    the other facts we have noted supplied grounds on
    which to stop Raibley for questioning.
    As Raibley points out, Lindburg did not
    actually know that Raibley was speeding away from
    the lot in response to the officer’s presence.
    Lindburg had neither seen nor spoken to Raibley,
    and at that point in time the officer had no
    information confirming that Raibley was even
    aware of his presence at the store. It was
    possible, therefore, that Raibley was simply in
    a hurry. And because the Wal-Mart lot was private
    property, Raibley’s high rate of speed while
    leaving the lot broke no traffic laws.
    Even so, one could reasonably have inferred
    that Raibley was fleeing in response to
    Lindburg’s presence--as Raibley would later admit
    that he was. Lindburg had parked his cruiser near
    the store entrance, where it would have been
    visible to anyone entering or leaving the store.
    He had proceeded into the store to ask the
    manager whether she had seen "the guy who was
    videotaping" earlier. It was therefore quite
    likely that Raibley was aware of a police
    officer’s presence. Raibley had already beat a
    speedy retreat from the parking lot once before,
    of course, when spotted by the store manager, and
    the fact that Raibley did so again at a fairly
    high rate of speed (30 to 40 miles per hour) upon
    Lindburg’s return to the store was reasonably
    suggestive of flight rather than simple haste.
    For these reasons, we conclude that the initial
    stop of Raibley’s vehicle was justified under
    Terry. The district court’s decision not to
    suppress the evidence gathered during Lindburg’s
    subsequent questioning of Raibley and from the
    consensual search of his truck was therefore
    correct.
    B.
    The remaining question is whether Raibley gave
    Lindburg his consent to view the videotape that
    contained the evidence underlying the pornography
    charge. The parties agree that Raibley’s consent
    was required under the circumstances of this
    case, and so we need not explore whether, in the
    absence of his consent, the police would have
    been entitled to view the tapes. See Walter v.
    United States, supra, 
    447 U.S. 649
    , 
    100 S. Ct. 2395
     (plurality); United States v. Eschweiler,
    
    745 F.2d 435
    , 440-41 (7th Cir. 1984), cert.
    denied, 
    469 U.S. 1214
    , 
    105 S. Ct. 1188
     (1985).
    Whether an individual voluntarily consented to a
    search is a factual assessment that turns on the
    totality of the circumstances. Schneckloth v.
    Bustamonte, 
    412 U.S. 218
    , 227, 
    93 S. Ct. 2041
    ,
    2047-48 (1973). Relevant factors include (1) the
    person’s age, intelligence, and education, (2)
    whether he was advised of his constitutional
    rights, (3) how long he was detained before he
    gave his consent, (4) whether his consent was
    immediate, or was prompted by repeated requests
    by the authorities, (5) whether any physical
    coercion was used, and (6) whether the individual
    was in police custody when he gave his consent.
    United States v. Strache, 
    202 F.3d 980
    , 985 (7th
    Cir. 2000); Valance v. Wisel, 
    110 F.3d 1269
    , 1278
    (7th Cir. 1997). The government bears the burden
    of proving, by a preponderance of the evidence,
    that consent was freely and voluntarily given.
    
    Id.
     In this case, there is no claim that Raibley
    was somehow coerced into giving his consent to
    view the videotape. The question, rather, is
    whether he actually consented to the viewing or,
    at most, simply acquiesced to a show of
    authority. The latter is insufficient to
    demonstrate consent. Florida v. Royer, 
    460 U.S. 491
    , 497, 
    103 S. Ct. 1319
    , 1324 (1983).
    In view of the factual nature of the consent
    determination, we review the district court’s
    resolution of that question for clear error.
    E.g., United States v. Shelby, 
    121 F.3d 1118
    ,
    1120 (7th Cir. 1997), cert. denied, 
    524 U.S. 928
    ,
    
    118 S. Ct. 2325
     (1998).
    "A finding is ’clearly erroneous’ when although
    there is evidence to support it, the reviewing
    court on the entire evidence is left with a
    definite and firm conviction that a mistake has
    been committed." United States v. United States
    Gypsum Co., 
    333 U.S. 364
    , 395, 
    68 S. Ct. 525
    , 
    92 L.Ed. 746
     (1948). "Where there are two
    permissible views of the evidence, the
    factfinder’s choice between them cannot be
    clearly erroneous." Anderson v. Bessemer City,
    
    470 U.S. 564
    , 574, 
    105 S. Ct. 1504
    , 
    84 L.Ed.2d 518
     (1985). If the district court’s account of
    the facts is plausible in light of the record
    viewed in its entirety, we may not reverse that
    decision even if we may have decided the case
    differently. See 
    id. at 573-74
    , 
    105 S. Ct. 1504
    (noting that if there are two possible
    understandings of the evidence, the factfinder’s
    conclusion cannot be clearly erroneous);
    [citation omitted]. Furthermore, any reasonable
    doubts we may harbor should be resolved in favor
    of the district court’s ruling "in light of its
    greater immersion in the case." Cook v. City of
    Chicago, 
    192 F.3d 693
    , 697 (7th Cir. 1999).
    Central States, S.E. & S.W. Areas Pension Fund v.
    Kroger Co., 
    226 F.3d 903
    , 910 (7th Cir. 2000),
    amended in other respects, 
    2001 WL 204762
     (7th
    Cir. Feb. 2, 2001), petition for cert. filed, No.
    00-1304 (U.S. Feb. 14, 2001); see also, e.g.,
    United States v. Denberg, 
    212 F.3d 987
    , 991 (7th
    Cir. 2000); United States v. Scheets, 
    188 F.3d 829
    , 836 (7th Cir. 1999), cert. denied, 
    528 U.S. 1096
    , 
    120 S. Ct. 837
     (2000).
    Although he believed that the question was
    close, see Suppr. Tr. at 211, Judge McDade
    concluded that Raibley did consent to Lindburg’s
    review of the videotape. He based that finding on
    Raibley’s shrug of the shoulders when Lindburg
    solicited his consent, coupled with Raibley’s
    subsequent request, at the jailhouse, that
    Lindburg view the tape on the camera monitor. Id.
    at 213-14. The judge did not believe that the
    shrug, without additional evidence, was
    sufficient to demonstrate Raibley’s consent. Id.
    The judge found it significant, however, that
    Raibley later asked Lindburg to use the video
    camera to view the tape privately. Id. at 214.
    Judge McDade saw that request as evidence of
    Raibley’s awareness that Lindburg was going to
    view the tape. Id. at 214. That awareness, in
    turn, suggested that Raibley had indeed meant to
    signal his consent to Lindburg by shrugging his
    shoulders. Id.
    We find no clear error in the district judge’s
    finding that Raibley consented to Lindburg’s
    review of the tape. Like Judge McDade, we think
    that the question is a close one. Gestures are
    often ambiguous, and at least one court has
    concluded that a shrug without more is
    insufficient to show one’s consent to search.
    State v. Harris, 
    642 A.2d 1242
    , 1246-47 (Del.
    Super. Ct. 1993). Other courts, however, have
    accepted shrugs and similar gestures as
    sufficient evidence of consent. E.g., United
    States v. Wilson, 
    895 F.2d 168
    , 172 (4th Cir.
    1990) (defendant shrugged his shoulders and
    raised his arms when asked for consent to pat-
    down search); see United States v. Griffin, 
    530 F.2d 739
    , 742 (7th Cir. 1976) ("[t]he consent [to
    search] may be in the form of words, gesture, or
    conduct"), citing Robbins v. MacKenzie, 
    364 F.2d 45
    , 48-49 (1st Cir.), cert. denied, 
    385 U.S. 913
    ,
    
    87 S. Ct. 215
     (1966). We need not decide whether
    a shrug alone would suffice as proof of consent,
    because, as Judge McDade pointed out, Raibley
    later called Lindburg to his cell and asked him
    to view the videotape privately. We believe that
    the shrug, coupled with the later request,
    permitted the inference that Raibley consented to
    the viewing.
    As Raibley points out, he was incarcerated when
    he asked Lindburg to watch the tape on the video
    camera; moreover, Lindburg had told him that "we
    were going to be viewing the tape." Suppr. Tr.
    89./1 But these circumstances did not compel a
    finding that Raibley acquiesced to a show of
    authority. Although Raibley was under arrest when
    Lindburg solicited his consent and incarcerated
    when he later spoke with Lindburg about viewing
    the videotape privately, these facts by no means
    preclude the notion that he consented
    voluntarily. See, e.g., Strache, 
    202 F.3d at 986
    .
    On neither occasion had Raibley been in custody
    for a lengthy period of time, and there is no
    evidence that Raibley was ever pressured or
    badgered for his consent. So far as the record
    reveals, after its dramatic beginning, Lindburg’s
    encounter with Raibley took place in a calm,
    professional manner. Lindburg had apprised
    Raibley of his constitutional rights when he took
    him into custody. Moreover, it was Raibley who
    summoned Lindburg to his cell to suggest that the
    officer look at the tape on the camera monitor.
    Although arguably susceptible to multiple
    interpretations, it is not unreasonable to
    construe that suggestion as confirmation that
    Raibley affirmatively consented to Lindburg’s
    review of the tapes, and was concerned only that
    Lindburg not play the tapes before "a whole
    audience." Suppr. Tr. 37; see United States v.
    Price, 
    54 F.3d 342
    , 346 (7th Cir. 1995); United
    States v. Benitez, 
    899 F.2d 995
    , 998-99 (10th Cir.
    1990). There is no evidence suggesting that
    Raibley knew that Lindburg had already watched
    the first of the two tapes by this time and was
    about to view the second--that the viewing was
    about to become a fait accompli, in other words.
    Raibley, whom the record reveals to have been an
    aquatic biologist who had published a number of
    scientific papers, obviously was a bright, mature
    individual. And there is no evidence that Raibley
    at any time voiced any objection to Lindburg’s
    review of the tapes. See Forman v. Richmond
    Police Dep’t, 
    104 F.3d 950
    , 960 (7th Cir.), cert.
    denied, 
    522 U.S. 997
    , 
    118 S. Ct. 563
     (1997);
    Price, 
    54 F.3d at 346
     (7th Cir. 1995).
    Under these circumstances, we believe that Judge
    McDade was free to infer from Raibley’s actions
    and words that he gave Lindburg his consent to
    watch the videotapes. The judge’s decision to
    draw that inference is therefore not clearly
    erroneous.
    III.
    Having concluded that Officer Lindburg had an
    objectively reasonable basis on which to stop and
    question Raibley, and finding no clear error in
    the district court’s finding that Raibley
    consented to the officer’s review of the
    videotapes found in his truck, we AFFIRM Raibley’s
    conviction.
    /1 It is not clear from the record, however, whether
    Lindburg so informed Raibley before or after
    Raibley summoned Lindburg to ask the officer to
    view the tapes in private. See Suppr. Tr. 89.