United States v. Webber, Vickie ( 2008 )


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  •                              In the
    United States Court of Appeals
    For the Seventh Circuit
    ____________
    No. 07-2117
    UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
    Plaintiff-Appellee,
    v.
    VICKIE L. WEBBER,
    Defendant-Appellant.
    ____________
    Appeal from the United States District Court
    for the Northern District of Illinois, Western Division.
    No. 06 CR 50015—Philip G. Reinhard, Judge.
    ____________
    ARGUED NOVEMBER 2, 2007—DECIDED JULY 29, 2008
    ____________
    Before EASTERBROOK, Chief Judge, and POSNER and
    RIPPLE, Circuit Judges.
    RIPPLE, Circuit Judge. Vickie L. Webber was charged
    with seven counts of making false statements to obtain
    federal employees’ compensation benefits, in violation of
    
    18 U.S.C. § 1920
    . A jury convicted her on all seven counts.
    The district court then sentenced Ms. Webber to five-
    months’ imprisonment followed by three years of super-
    vised release, the first five months of which are to be
    served under home confinement. The court also ordered
    Ms. Webber to pay $62,226.36 in restitution. Ms. Webber
    timely appeals her conviction and sentence.
    2                                                   No. 07-2117
    For the reasons set forth in this opinion, we affirm
    Ms. Webber’s conviction; we reverse that portion of the
    sentence requiring her to pay restitution in the amount of
    $62,226.36 and remand the case to the district court for
    further proceedings consistent with this opinion.1
    I
    BACKGROUND
    A. The Facts Presented at Trial and Ms. Webber’s Con-
    viction
    Ms. Webber began working as a rural letter carrier for
    the United States Postal Service (“USPS”) in 1986. In 2000,
    Ms. Webber submitted a claim for benefits under the
    Federal Employees’ Compensation Act (“FECA”). Her
    claim for benefits was based on problems that she began
    having with her hands and wrists due to the repetitive
    nature of her mail sorting duties prior to beginning her
    mail route.
    FECA provides compensation to federal employees for
    injuries sustained during the performance of their duties.
    Under FECA, federal employees who are totally disabled
    and have at least one dependent receive 75% of their
    federal salary. An employee is totally disabled if she has
    no capacity to earn any wages or work in any position.
    Partially disabled employees receive 75% of their federal
    salaries minus their wage-earning capacity. An employee
    is classified as partially disabled if she is unable to return
    to the position held at the time of the injury but never-
    theless has limited ability to perform other work.
    1
    The district court exercised jurisdiction under 
    18 U.S.C. § 3231
    .
    Our jurisdiction is predicated on 
    28 U.S.C. § 1291
    .
    No. 07-2117                                               3
    FECA claims are administered by the Office of Workers’
    Compensation Programs (“OWCP”) in the Department of
    Labor. To receive FECA benefits, a disabled federal em-
    ployee must submit a “Claim for Compensation,” Form
    CA-7, for each period during which the employee seeks
    benefits. If OWCP determines that an employee is likely to
    remain disabled for a considerable period of time, OWCP
    places the person on the “periodic rolls.” Such employees
    are relieved of the obligation to file CA-7 forms; however,
    they are required to submit Form 1032 on an annual basis.
    OWCP uses these forms to determine an employee’s
    wage-earning capacity and the amount of benefits to which
    an employee is entitled, to reevaluate an employee’s
    disability determination and to ascertain whether an
    employee would benefit from vocational rehabilitation
    counseling.
    Form CA-7 contains the following question: “Have you
    worked outside your federal job during the period(s)
    claimed in Section 2? (Include salaried, self-employed,
    commissioned, volunteer, etc.).” R.94, Ex. 1. If an employee
    answers “yes” to this question, she is directed to provide
    additional information, such as the name and address
    of the business at which she was employed, the dates
    worked and the type of work performed.
    Form 1032 contains the following questions: (1) “Did you
    work for any employer during the past 15 months?”;
    (2) “Were you self-employed or involved in any business
    enterprise in the past 15 months?”; and (3) “If you an-
    swered ‘No’ to both questions 1 and 2, state whether you
    were unemployed for all periods during the past 15
    months?” R.94, Ex. 5. Again, an employee who answered
    questions (1) or (2) affirmatively is directed to provide
    supplemental information about where she worked and
    4                                              No. 07-2117
    what type of work she did. Immediately preceding these
    questions is an instructions section, explaining in detail
    the type of work that triggers the reporting requirement.
    Two paragraphs in this instruction area explain:
    Report ALL self-employment or involvement in
    business enterprises. These include but are not limited
    to: farming, sales work, operating a business, including
    a store or a restaurant. . . . Report activities such as
    keeping books and records, or managing and/or
    overseeing a business of any kind, including a family
    business. Even if your activities were part-time or
    intermittent, you must report them.
    ....
    Report ANY work or ownership interest in any
    business enterprise, even if the business lost money or
    if profits or income were reinvested or paid to others.
    If you performed any duties in any business enterprise
    for which you were not paid, you must show as rate
    of pay what it would have cost the employer or organi-
    zation to hire someone to perform the work or duties
    you did, even if your work was for yourself or a
    family member or relative. . . .
    R.94, Ex. 5 at 1 (emphasis in original).
    On December 14, 2000, OWCP accepted Ms. Webber’s
    FECA claim regarding her condition of carpal-tunnel
    syndrome. OWCP paid Ms. Webber a total of $12,043.58 in
    FECA lost wages benefits from January 17, 2001 through
    June 8, 2001. During this period, Ms. Webber submitted to
    OWCP eleven CA-7 forms. On each of these eleven forms,
    Ms. Webber answered “no” to the question, “Have you
    worked outside your federal job during the period(s)
    claimed?” R.83 at 81-82. In June 2001, Ms. Webber’s
    No. 07-2117                                                  5
    physician authorized her to return to work. The USPS
    gave her a limited duty assignment to accommodate her
    medical condition.
    On June 5, 2002, Ms. Webber submitted another claim
    for FECA benefits. Ms. Webber stated that she had reflex
    sympathetic disorder, as well as carpal-tunnel syndrome;
    she further stated that she was unable to perform her
    duties without assistance due to extreme pain and limited
    ability to move her hands.2 On November 18, 2002, OWCP
    again accepted Ms. Webber’s claim and determined that
    she was totally disabled. OWCP paid Ms. Webber FECA
    lost wages benefits for the periods between June 10, 2002
    and June 26, 2002 and between December 6, 2002 and the
    start of trial. Ms. Webber received a total of $127,986.78
    in benefits. From January 25, 2003 through April 25, 2003,
    Ms. Webber submitted to OWCP four CA-7 forms, again
    answering “no” to the outside work question. R.94, Ex. 1-4.
    On April 20, OWCP placed her on the periodic rolls.
    Thereafter, Ms. Webber submitted to OWCP three 1032
    forms; Ms. Webber answered “no” to questions (1) and
    (2) on each of those forms. R.94, Ex. 5-7.
    2
    At trial, Ms. Webber introduced testimony about her illness
    and medical history. Starting in 2002, she received a series of
    injections to treat her pain. When the injections did not work,
    she underwent a surgical procedure in which her physician
    implanted a spinal cord stimulator in her back. She developed
    an infection as a result of the surgery, and the stimulator was
    removed. In March 2004, the physician successfully implanted
    the device. In December 2004, Ms. Webber underwent another
    surgical procedure in which the physician implanted an
    intrathecal drug delivery system, which involves the implanta-
    tion of a catheter that is attached to an external pump. The
    device delivers pain medication.
    6                                             No. 07-2117
    On April 17, 2000, about seven months before the OWCP
    accepted her claim for FECA benefits for carpal-tunnel
    syndrome, Ms. Webber obtained a county business owner-
    ship certificate for a business known as Clearview Pond
    and Garden (“Clearview”). Clearview was a retail business
    that sold plants, pond supplies and Koi fish. The business
    was located on a rural, five-acre tract of land in Byron,
    Illinois, where Ms. Webber resided with her family. Ms.
    Webber also registered Clearview in her own name with
    the Illinois Department of Revenue and received a special-
    use permit from the Ogle County Zoning Commission
    authorizing her to conduct a business on her property.
    In 2001, a fifty-foot-long greenhouse was constructed on
    Ms. Webber’s property, which was used for Clearview’s
    business operations. Plants with price tags were placed in
    three long rows running down the middle and sides of the
    greenhouse; plants with price tags also were placed on
    tables outside of the greenhouse. There was a cash register
    inside the greenhouse, and two large tubs of Koi fish were
    positioned outside.
    On January 29, 2001, Ms. Webber submitted on behalf
    of Clearview an application to International Pond Supply,
    Inc. (“IPS”), in Sante Fe, New Mexico. The application
    was for a contract with IPS to purchase pond supplies at
    wholesale prices and then resell those products at retail
    prices. On April 2, 2001, Ms. Webber submitted an applica-
    tion to the Ogle County Zoning Commission requesting
    permission to erect signs for Clearview on two other
    properties in Byron, Illinois. A few months later, in June
    2001, she purchased ten advertising spots for Clearview
    on WFEN radio in Rockford, Illinois. On July 2, 2003, Ms.
    Webber submitted to a corporation an application to be
    treated as a wholesaler. In that application, Ms. Webber
    No. 07-2117                                              7
    stated that Clearview’s sales for 2002 totaled $40,000 and
    projected that Clearview’s total sales for 2003 would
    reach $50,000.
    Ms. Webber had business cards stating that Clearview
    was open Tuesday through Saturday from 9:00 a.m. to
    5:00 p.m. and Sunday from 9:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. The
    Government introduced evidence at trial showing that,
    during 2003 and 2004, Ms. Webber managed Clearview’s
    finances. During the months of May, June and July of 2003,
    Ms. Webber wrote and signed all sixty-four checks drawn
    on Clearview’s business account; she wrote and signed
    all but one of the fifty checks drawn on that account from
    April through October of 2004. Also during this period, Ms.
    Webber ordered a substantial portion of Clearview’s plant
    and Koi fish inventory. IPS records indicate that Ms.
    Webber placed fourteen of seventeen orders made by the
    business in 2003 and 2004. Ms. Webber also placed several
    fish orders with another distributor during the same
    period.
    In 2003, Ms. Webber met with Linda Rosquist, the owner
    of Goldigger Perennials, a plant wholesaler. During this
    meeting, Ms. Webber, Rosquist and Julie Keller, a Clear-
    view employee, discussed prebooking Clearview’s plant
    order for the following year. Ms. Webber made the final
    decisions about which plants Clearview would order. Ms.
    Webber made seven trips to Arkansas in 2003 and 2004 to
    pick up plant and other inventory, as well as several trips
    to O’Hare airport in Chicago to pick up fish inventory.
    In August 2003, USPS Injury Compensation Specialist Jim
    Johnson called Ms. Webber’s telephone number and heard
    an answering machine greeting for Clearview. Johnson
    informed the USPS Inspection Service and, on August 25,
    8                                               No. 07-2117
    2003, Postal Inspector James Husarik went to Clearview.3
    Ms. Webber approached Inspector Husarik and asked if
    she could help him. He stated that he was interested in
    purchasing some plants for his yard. Ms. Webber walked
    with Inspector Husarik around Clearview, showed him
    various plants and answered his questions. Ms. Webber
    told Inspector Husarik, whom she believed was a cus-
    tomer, that she was usually at Clearview during its normal
    business hours and that she recently had hired a new
    employee named Julie Keller. Ms. Webber suggested that
    Inspector Husarik give her a diagram of his backyard so
    that she could help him with his landscaping. Once the
    Inspector agreed to purchase a plant, Ms. Webber picked
    up the plant, carried it to the cash register, rang up the
    sale, bagged the plant and handed it to him. He explained
    that he would return with his cousin, who knew more
    about plants.
    On August 26, 2003, Inspector Husarik returned with
    Inspector Kurt Kamradt. Ms. Webber was not present. The
    Inspectors returned later in the day, and, this time, Ms.
    Webber and her husband, Tom Webber, were present.
    Inspector Husarik gave Ms. Webber the diagram that she
    had requested. Ms. Webber took the Inspectors around
    Clearview, and she suggested various plants. While she did
    so, Ms. Webber told the Inspectors that she handled the
    plant portion of the business and that her husband handled
    the ponds. Ms. Webber also stated that, in wintertime,
    she buys most of the plants that were sold at Clearview,
    starts them out as plugs in her basement and then transfers
    them to the greenhouse. She mentioned that she frequently
    3
    All of the undercover visits were video recorded. The videos
    were played for the jury during the trial.
    No. 07-2117                                                 9
    traveled to Arkansas to pick up Koi fish. Ms. Webber and
    her husband collected the plants that the Inspectors had
    agreed to purchase and brought them back to the cash
    register. Ms. Webber rang up the sale.
    On October 6, 2004, Postal Inspectors Eileen Roberts and
    Alvin Dvorak went to Clearview posing as husband and
    wife. Ms. Webber met with them and asked them to return
    with a diagram of their property. On October 14, Inspector
    Roberts returned, and Ms. Webber directed her to Keller,
    the employee Ms. Webber had hired.
    On February 17, 2005, Inspectors Kamradt and Husarik
    returned to Clearview, identified themselves as Postal
    Inspectors and told Ms. Webber that they wanted to
    interview her about her injury compensation claim. Ms.
    Webber, who did not recognize the Inspectors from their
    previous undercover visits, initially told the Inspectors that
    she was unable to work at Clearview because of her
    condition and that her husband was the sole owner of
    Clearview. She explained that her husband ordered all of
    the plants and fish sold at Clearview, although she some-
    times would offer her opinion as to which flowers he
    should purchase. The Inspectors told Ms. Webber that they
    thought she was being untruthful about her involvement in
    Clearview. As this point, Ms. Webber’s husband, Tom
    Webber, walked into the room; the Inspectors asked him
    who owned Clearview. Tom said that Ms. Webber owned
    the business. Ms. Webber corrected him and told him that
    the business was in his name. The Inspectors asked Ms.
    Webber what Keller would say if they were to ask her
    about Ms. Webber’s involvement in the business; she
    conceded that Keller probably would say that Ms. Webber
    was active in and ran the business.
    At trial, Ms. Webber testified that she believed that she
    had answered accurately the questions on the CA-7 and
    10                                              No. 07-2117
    1032 forms. She stated that she had not considered her
    involvement in Clearview to be self-employment because
    no one would have paid her for her work there. Ms.
    Webber also testified that, prior to filling out the forms,
    she had called Jim Johnson and explained that she had a
    family business. According to Ms. Webber, Johnson asked
    her whether she received a wage, to which she answered,
    “no”; he told her “not to worry about it.” R.87 at 851.
    Johnson denied ever saying this.
    Ms. Webber testified about her physical condition. She
    explained that her pain medication made her drowsy
    and prevented her from doing much of anything. Accord-
    ing to Ms. Webber, her friend, Julie Keller, volunteered to
    run the operation for her. Ms. Webber also testified that
    her boss at the Byron Post Office, Jeff Engestrom, and
    other USPS employees knew of the existence of Clearview
    and that she never had tried to conceal her involvement
    in, or the existence of, Clearview. Finally, Ms. Webber’s
    daughter and two of her former neighbors testified that,
    from their personal observation, Ms. Webber was unable
    to perform any physical activity and was often confused
    as a result of her illness and medication.
    A jury convicted her of seven counts of making false
    statements to obtain federal employees’ compensation
    benefits in violation of 
    18 U.S.C. § 1920
    .
    B. Sentencing Proceedings
    The district court sentenced Ms. Webber to serve five
    months’ imprisonment in the custody of the Bureau of
    Prisons and three years of supervised release, the first five
    months of which would be served under home confine-
    ment. The court further sentenced Ms. Webber to pay
    No. 07-2117                                                       11
    $62,226.36 in restitution, a fine of $2,000 and a special
    assessment. Ms. Webber is appealing her sentence only
    with regard to the order of restitution. We therefore
    shall focus our discussion of the facts accordingly.
    To determine Ms. Webber’s sentence under the advisory
    guidelines, the district court had to calculate the total
    amount of loss that Ms. Webber’s offense had entailed. This
    determination required ascertaining what Ms. Webber’s
    wage-earning capacity had been during the period for
    which she had received FECA benefits and subtracting
    that amount from the total amount of benefits that she
    actually had received; the resulting figure was the amount
    of benefits that Ms. Webber had obtained as a result of her
    fraudulent answers.4 At the first of three sentencing
    hearings, the Government indicated to the court that it had
    calculated the resulting amount to total $50,632.07. The
    Government obtained this figure by conducting a “labor
    market survey,” undertaken by the Department of Labor,
    in which other businesses were contacted to determine how
    much money an individual like Ms. Webber could earn.
    Ms. Webber objected to the survey; she claimed that an
    investigation had revealed that many of the businesses
    included within the survey actually had not been contacted
    and that many of the businesses were not comparable to
    Clearview. The district court stated that, after having read
    4
    See U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1(b)(1); id. cmt. 3(F)(ii) (“In a case involving
    government benefits . . . loss shall be considered to be not less
    than the value of the benefits obtained by unintended recipients
    or diverted to unintended uses, as the case may be. For example,
    if the defendant was the intended recipient of food stamps
    having a value of $100 but fraudulently received food stamps
    having a value of $150, loss is $50.”).
    12                                               No. 07-2117
    the report, it was inclined to agree with Ms. Webber that
    many of the businesses were not sufficiently comparable to
    Clearview to be probative of Ms. Webber’s wage-earning
    capacity. The district court further indicated its preliminary
    belief that the Government would have a difficult time
    showing that Ms. Webber’s wage-earning capacity was
    between $30,000 and $70,000. The court, however, contin-
    ued the hearing until May 3, 2007 to allow Ms. Webber’s
    counsel to prepare to cross-examine the author of the
    survey.
    At the May 3 hearing, the court heard arguments from
    both sides as to the labor market survey and as to the
    amount of loss. Ultimately, the court determined that the
    labor market survey, though relevant, had little probative
    value because of the substantial differences between the
    businesses surveyed and Clearview. It further found that
    Ms. Webber had done valuable work for Clearview and
    that the business could not have functioned without her. It
    found, however, that Ms. Webber was in pain during this
    time, that she had been away from the business frequently
    for medical treatment and operations, and that her condi-
    tion did limit the amount of work that she could perform.
    Recognizing the imprecise nature of the task at hand but
    that it nevertheless had to make a reasonable estimate of
    the loss amount, the district court calculated the loss to be
    $10,400. It reached this figure by assuming that Ms. Webber
    had made eight dollars an hour working on a part-time
    basis for five hours per day for five days a week, equaling
    $200 per week. It multiplied this figure by twenty-six
    weeks, and multiplied that by the two year period covered
    in the indictment, equaling a total loss of $10,400. The court
    recognized that its calculation was “very imprecise” and
    that
    No. 07-2117                                                13
    [t]he defendant’s services, in my opinion were much
    higher than that. I haven’t put a calculation on it, but
    certainly for all—she worked in the off season when
    they weren’t open, and, therefore, a lot more hours
    could be attributed there, and she worked not just as a
    clerk. But I’ve used that sort of as a minimum bench-
    mark . . . .
    R.90 at 45. The court accordingly calculated Ms. Webber’s
    advisory guidelines sentence based on a loss amount
    between $10,000 and $30,000. It sentenced her to five-
    months’ imprisonment and three years of supervised
    release, the first five months of which would be served
    under home confinement.
    The district court then heard arguments on the issue of
    restitution. The Government asked the court, pursuant to
    
    20 C.F.R. § 10.529
    , a federal regulation issued under FECA,
    to impose restitution for the entire amount of benefits that
    Ms. Webber had received ($62,226.36), rather than just the
    amount that she had obtained as a result of her fraudulent
    answers. Ms. Webber objected, arguing that restitution
    could not be imposed beyond the loss amount to the
    victim, here, the Government. After continuing the hearing
    until May 9 to consider the issue, the district court, relying
    on United States v. Harms, 
    442 F.3d 367
     (5th Cir. 2006),
    determined that it would impose restitution in the amount
    of $62,226.36, the full amount of benefits paid to Ms.
    Webber.
    II
    DISCUSSION
    A. Construction of 
    18 U.S.C. § 1920
    Ms. Webber contends that the Government failed to
    14                                                  No. 07-2117
    establish a felony violation of 
    18 U.S.C. § 1920
     because it
    did not allege in the indictment or prove beyond a reason-
    able doubt that the benefits that she “falsely obtained”
    exceeded $1,000. Because this contention raises a question
    of statutory interpretation, our review is plenary. United
    States v. Lapi, 
    458 F.3d 555
    , 562 (7th Cir. 2006).
    Section 1920 of Title 18 provides:
    Whoever knowingly and willfully falsifies, conceals, or
    covers up a material fact, or makes a false, fictitious, or
    fraudulent statement or representation, or makes or
    uses a false statement or report knowing the same to
    contain any false, fictitious, or fraudulent statement or
    entry in connection with the application for or receipt
    of compensation or other benefit or payment under
    subchapter I or III of chapter 81 of title 5, shall be guilty
    of perjury, and on conviction thereof shall be punished
    by a fine under this title, or by imprisonment for not
    more than 5 years, or both; but if the amount of the
    benefits falsely obtained does not exceed $1,000, such
    person shall be punished by a fine under this title, or
    by imprisonment for not more than 1 year, or both.
    Ms. Webber invites our attention to the second clause of
    section 1920. In her view, the words “but if the amount of
    the benefits falsely obtained does not exceed $1,000” create
    an essential element of felony liability. To prove felony
    liability, Ms. Webber contends, the Government must
    allege in the indictment and prove beyond a reasonable
    doubt to the trier of fact that the benefits that the defendant
    obtained through the use of false statements exceeded
    $1,000. She submits that the Government failed to satisfy
    both of these requirements and, consequently, “failed to
    prove felony liability.” Appellant’s Br. at 14. Accordingly,
    Ms. Webber requests that we vacate her felony convictions
    and remand the case for the imposition of a misdemeanor
    No. 07-2117                                                 15
    sentence. 
    Id.
    The principles that must guide our inquiry are well
    settled but worth repeating. In analyzing the language of
    a statute, we give the words their ordinary meaning
    unless the context counsels otherwise. McCarthy v. Bronson,
    
    500 U.S. 136
    , 139 (1991) (explaining that “statutory lan-
    guage must always be read in its proper context”). When
    the plain wording of the statute is clear, that is the end of
    the matter. BedRoc, Ltd. v. United States, 
    541 U.S. 176
    , 183
    (2004) (noting that the task of statutory interpretation “ends
    there [if] the text is unambiguous”). The “plain meaning”
    of a statute, however, is often illuminated not only by its
    language but also by its structure. Alexander v. Sandoval, 
    532 U.S. 275
    , 288 (2001); Marie O. v. Edgar, 
    131 F.3d 610
    , 622 (7th
    Cir. 1997). “Context, not just literal text, will often lead a
    court to Congress’ intent in respect to a particular statute.”
    City of Rancho Palos Verdes v. Abrahams, 
    544 U.S. 113
    , 127
    (2005) (Breyer, J., concurring); Dersch Energies, Inc. v. Shell
    Oil Co., 
    314 F.3d 846
    , 856 (7th Cir. 2002) (noting that a
    statute must be “construed in its proper context”).
    Whether it is necessary for the Government to plead and
    prove that its loss was in excess of one thousand dollars
    is, given the current state of the law, not an easy question.
    On the one hand, when section 1920 is read in its entirety,
    both the language and the structure of the statute indicate
    quite clearly that the overall design and object of the statute
    is “to criminalize the making of false statements in the
    application for and receipt of government benefits.” United
    States v. Tupone, 
    442 F.3d 145
    , 151 (3d Cir. 2006). The first
    clause of the statute makes it a felony to employ any of the
    fraudulent acts enumerated in that clause in order to
    obtain from the United States any compensation, other
    benefit or payment provided under the provisions set forth
    in the statute. The maximum term of imprisonment is five
    16                                                   No. 07-2117
    years. The second clause of section 1920 seems most easily
    read as an exception to the first clause. Set off only by a
    semicolon from its predecessor, this second clause point-
    edly begins: “but if . . . .” Under its terms, if it is established
    that the amount “falsely obtained” from the United States
    is less than one thousand dollars, the permissible maxi-
    mum term of imprisonment is one year.
    To read the statute as creating a misdemeanor with a
    narrow exception for felony liability when the amount at
    issue is in excess of one thousand dollars requires that,
    literally and figuratively, the statute be stood on its head.
    As our colleagues in the Third Circuit noted:
    An examination of the Federal Criminal Code reveals
    such a structure to be highly atypical [sic] among
    criminal statutes—especially those dealing with fraud,
    theft, or false statements—that provide for both felony
    and misdemeanor offenses. In fact, numerous sections
    of the criminal code mirror the precise linguistic
    pattern found in § 1920. See, e.g., 
    18 U.S.C. §§ 655
    , 656,
    1003, 1025. The above code sections and those like them
    all include the same structural elements: a lengthy
    primary clause describing certain illegal conduct and
    providing for felony punishment thereof; a semicolon;
    and, finally, a second clause—beginning with the word
    “but”—which refers back to the illegal conduct de-
    scribed in the main clause and provides for misde-
    meanor punishment in cases where the dollar value
    associated with the aforementioned illegal conduct
    does not exceed $1000. See, e.g., 
    id.
     In other words, the
    above statutes are felony criminal statutes that include
    a narrow misdemeanor exception in the event that the
    illegal conduct results in de minimus gain.
    We reject the argument that, unlike all other identi-
    cally structured provisions in the Federal Criminal
    No. 07-2117                                                    17
    Code, § 1920 alone primarily establishes a misde-
    meanor and creates a narrow “felony exception” that
    turns on an undefined, two-word phrase, and that
    requires a calculation nowhere mentioned or implied
    in the text. The much more natural and obvious read-
    ing of § 1920 is that the main “effect” of the text is to
    create the felony of making false statements related to
    government benefits, and to carve out a narrow misde-
    meanor exception for those defendants whose false
    statements relate to applications for or receipt of
    de minimus benefits and dollar amounts.
    Tupone, 442 F.3d at 152 (footnote omitted) (emphases in
    original).5
    Given the language and structure of the statute, it is not
    surprising that two of our sister circuits have concluded,
    albeit without extensive discussion, that the amount of the
    benefits falsely obtained is not a substantive element of the
    offense but a statutorily mandated punitive sentencing
    factor. See United States v. Henry, 
    164 F.3d 1304
    , 1307 (10th
    Cir. 1999); United States v. Grillo, 
    160 F.3d 149
    , 150 (2d Cir.
    5
    Although we see merit in the general interpretative methodol-
    ogy employed by the Third Circuit, we do not want to be
    understood as necessarily approving of the intimation that, to
    obtain a sentence of imprisonment greater than one year under
    Apprendi v. New Jersey, 
    530 U.S. 466
     (2000), the jury must find
    only that the entire amount of benefits obtained from the
    Government exceeded $1,000, rather than the amount that could
    be attributed to the false statement. Compare United States v.
    Tupone, 
    442 F.3d 145
    , 150 n.3, 151-52 (3d Cir. 2006) (reading the
    phrase “benefits falsely obtained” as being synonymous with the
    phrase “in connection with”), with 
    id.
     at 157-58 & n.9 (Stapleton,
    J., dissenting).
    18                                                    No. 07-2117
    1998) (per curiam).6 We think that there is much to recom-
    mend this approach. We note that in interpreting a stat-
    ute with the same operative language and structure, see 
    18 U.S.C. § 641
    ,7 we have assumed that there the amount of
    loss is not an element of the offense. See United States v.
    Howard, 
    30 F.3d 871
    , 875 (7th Cir. 1994).8 In the statute
    before us, the core prohibited conduct is stated clearly in
    the principal clause of the statute: obtaining a government
    benefit through a false statement. The second subsidiary
    6
    No other circuits have ruled definitively on the matter.
    7
    Section 641 provides:
    Whoever embezzles, steals, purloins, or knowingly converts
    to his use or the use of another, or without authority, sells,
    conveys or disposes of any record, voucher, money, or thing
    of value of the United States or of any department or agency
    thereof, or any property made or being made under contract
    for the United States or any department or agency thereof;
    or
    Whoever receives, conceals, or retains the same with intent
    to convert it to his use or gain, knowing it to have been
    embezzled, stolen, purloined or converted—
    Shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than
    ten years, or both; but if the value of such property in the
    aggregate, combining amounts from all the counts for which
    the defendant is convicted in a single case, does not exceed
    the sum of $1,000, he shall be fined under this title or
    imprisoned not more than one year, or both.
    The word “value” means face, par, or market value, or cost
    price, either wholesale or retail, whichever is greater.
    
    18 U.S.C. § 641
    .
    8
    As we point out, however, this position is a minority view. See
    note, infra, 10.
    No. 07-2117                                                       19
    clause does not “complete the thought.” Jones v. United
    States, 
    526 U.S. 227
    , 233 (1999).9 The first clause containing
    the prohibition stands on its “own grammatical feet,”
    thanks to the phrase “shall be punished.” 
    Id. at 233-34
    .
    Although the language and the structure of the statute
    counsel in favor of treating the matter of loss as a sentenc-
    ing consideration rather than an element of the offense, we
    must acknowledge that a significant body of case law
    interpreting other statutes with the same language and
    structure, has held that, in order to obtain a felony convic-
    tion, it is necessary for the Government to set forth in the
    indictment and prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the
    amount in question is greater than the amount stated in the
    statutory text.10 Indeed, the Third Circuit, whose reading of
    section 1920 does not require proof of the amount in order
    9
    Cf. Carter v. United States, 
    530 U.S. 255
    , 272-73 (2000) (holding
    that value is an element for purposes of 
    18 U.S.C. § 2113
    (b)
    because the first paragraph “requires that the property taken
    have ‘value exceeding $1,000’ ” and the second paragraph “refers
    to property of ‘value not exceeding $1,000,’ ” thus “describ[ing]
    [two] distinct offenses”). See generally McMillan v. Pennsylvania,
    
    477 U.S. 79
    , 91 (1986) (holding “that States may treat ‘visible
    possession of a firearm’ as a sentencing consideration rather
    than an element of a particular offense”); United States v. Smith,
    
    223 F.3d 554
    , 562-66 (7th Cir. 2000) (discussing McMillan and its
    progeny).
    10
    United States v. Robie, 
    166 F.3d 444
    , 449 (2d Cir. 1999) (inter-
    preting 
    18 U.S.C. § 641
    ) (citing Theriault v. United States, 
    434 F.2d 212
    , 214 (5th Cir. 1970)); United States v. Seaman, 
    18 F.3d 649
    , 650
    (9th Cir. 1994); United States v. Wilson, 
    284 F.2d 407
    , 408 (4th Cir.
    1960); see also United States v. Sargent, 
    504 F.3d 767
    , 771 (9th Cir.
    2007) (
    18 U.S.C. § 1707
    ); United States v. Parisien, 
    413 F.3d 924
    ,
    926 (8th Cir. 2005) (
    18 U.S.C. § 661
    ).
    20                                                       No. 07-2117
    to obtain a felony conviction, see Tupone, 
    442 F.3d at 152
    ,
    has taken the opposite position with respect to 
    18 U.S.C. § 659
    ,11 a statute similar in relevant language and struc-
    ture. See United States v. Scanzello, 
    832 F.2d 18
    , 23 (3d Cir.
    1987).
    We need not decide this issue definitively in this case.
    Harmless error analysis applies when a district court’s jury
    instructions omit an element of an offense. See Neder v.
    United States, 
    527 U.S. 1
    , 9-10 (1999); United States v.
    Matthews, 
    505 F.3d 698
    , 707 (7th Cir. 2007); see also Chapman
    v. California, 
    386 U.S. 18
    , 24 (1967) (holding that a federal
    11
    Section 659 provides, in relevant part:
    Whoever embezzles, steals, or unlawfully takes, carries
    away, or conceals, or by fraud or deception obtains from
    any pipeline system, railroad car, wagon, motortruck,
    trailer, or other vehicle, or from any tank or storage facility,
    station, station house, platform or depot or from any
    steamboat, vessel, or wharf, or from any aircraft, air cargo
    container, air terminal, airport, aircraft terminal or air
    navigation facility, or from any intermodal container,
    trailer, container freight station, warehouse, or freight
    consolidation facility, with intent to convert to his own use
    any goods or chattels moving as or which are a part of or
    which constitute an interstate or foreign shipment of freight,
    express, or other property; . . . .
    Shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than
    10 years, or both, but if the amount or value of such money,
    baggage, goods, or chattels is less than $1,000, shall be fined
    under this title or imprisoned for not more than 3 years, or
    both.
    
    18 U.S.C. § 659
    . We note that section 659 separates the two
    permissible punishments with a comma rather than a semicolon.
    No. 07-2117                                                   21
    constitutional error is harmless if it appears “beyond a
    reasonable doubt that the error complained of did not
    contribute to the verdict obtained”). There never has been
    any serious contention that any of the falsities set forth in
    any of the counts resulted in a loss to the United States of
    less than one thousand dollars.12 Therefore, each of the
    counts clearly resulted in a felony conviction.13
    12
    Counts one, two and four charged Ms. Webber with submit-
    ting false CA-7 forms claiming FECA benefits for four-week
    intervals between January 25, 2003, and May 2, 2003; count three
    covers a two-week period between March 22, 2003, and April 4,
    2003. For the conduct charged in counts one, two and four,
    Ms. Webber received benefits in the amount of $2,515.52, and for
    the conduct charged in count three she received $1,257.76.
    Counts five through seven charged that Ms. Webber submitted
    1032 forms on December 8, 2003, March 4, 2003, and December
    13, 2004, providing information regarding the previous 15
    months; for each of these counts, Ms. Webber received, exclud-
    ing the periods previously reported on CA-7 forms, at least
    approximately $17,600, $7,545 and $23,000, respectively. The
    Government’s evidence at trial establishes beyond a reasonable
    doubt that Ms. Webber falsely obtained in excess of $1,000 for
    each of these counts. We also note that Ms. Webber did not
    dispute these figures at trial.
    13
    We have determined that Ms. Webber was convicted of a
    felony, and, therefore, it is unnecessary to reach her argument
    that, although the court sentenced her leniently, she must be re-
    sentenced because the district court might have imposed even
    less of a sentence if it had known that her crime was a misde-
    meanor.
    The district court correctly determined that Ms. Webber had
    committed felonies, and, consequently, the three-year term of
    supervised release was legally permissible. See 18 U.S.C.
    (continued...)
    22                                                 No. 07-2117
    Although the district court, properly exercising its
    discretion, determined that the appropriate sentence of
    confinement on each count should be less than one year,
    the imposition of these lenient sentences did not render
    these convictions misdemeanors. Although the sentence for
    each count is within the range permitted for a loss of under
    one thousand dollars, the plain wording of the statute
    makes clear that the applicability of the statutory one-year
    limitation is triggered by the amount falsely obtained from
    the United States, not by the final sentence imposed. That
    limitation on punishment is applicable only when the
    amount falsely obtained from the Government “does not
    exceed $1,000.” 
    18 U.S.C. § 1920
    .
    In sum, with respect to each of the counts, Ms. Webber
    falsely obtained benefits from the United States that
    exceeded one thousand dollars. She was found guilty
    under a statute that makes such conduct a felony and sets
    the maximum term of imprisonment at five years. The
    district court, despite that maximum, chose to impose only
    a sentence of five-months’ imprisonment and supervised
    release, including a period of home confinement. There-
    fore, any error flowing from the failure of the indictment to
    allege that the amount of loss was in excess of one thou-
    sand dollars or from the omission of an instruction requir-
    13
    (...continued)
    § 3583(b)(2) (authorizing a term of supervised release of “not
    more than three years” for a “Class D felony”); 
    18 U.S.C. § 3559
    (a)(4) (categorizing crimes for which the authorized
    sentence of imprisonment is “less than ten years but five or more
    years” as a “Class D felony”); 
    18 U.S.C. § 1920
     (authorizing a
    sentence of imprisonment of “not more than 5 years”); see
    also U.S.S.G. § 5D1.2(a)(2).
    No. 07-2117                                                     23
    ing a jury finding on the amount of loss was harmless
    beyond a reasonable doubt.
    B. Sufficiency of the Evidence as to Willfulness
    Ms. Webber submits that the Government did not
    introduce sufficient evidence from which a reasonable jury
    could conclude that she willfully made false statements to
    obtain FECA benefits. A defendant making an insufficiency
    of the evidence argument faces a difficult task. See United
    States v. Pulido, 
    69 F.3d 192
    , 205 (7th Cir. 1995) (characteriz-
    ing the burden as a “nearly insurmountable hurdle”). In
    reviewing a challenge to the sufficiency of the evidence, we
    do not weigh the evidence, United States v. Bowman, 
    353 F.3d 546
    , 552 (7th Cir. 2003), make credibility determina-
    tions, United States v. Woolfolk, 
    197 F.3d 900
    , 904 (7th Cir.
    1999), or resolve testimonial inconsistencies, see United
    States v. Hodges, 
    315 F.3d 794
    , 799 (7th Cir. 2003). The court,
    taking the evidence in the light most favorable to the
    Government, “will overturn a conviction based on insuffi-
    cient evidence only if the record is devoid of evidence from
    which a reasonable jury could find guilt beyond a reason-
    able doubt.” United States v. Stevens, 
    453 F.3d 963
    , 965 (7th
    Cir. 2003).
    Section 1920 requires proof that the false statement was
    made “willfully.” See 
    18 U.S.C. § 1920
    . The district court
    instructed the jury that “an act is done willfully if done
    voluntarily and intentionally and with intent to do some-
    thing the law forbids.” R.88 at 1084.14 Absent direct proof
    14
    See United States v. Markowski, 
    772 F.2d 358
    , 364 (7th Cir. 1985);
    United States v. Patrick, 
    542 F.2d 381
    , 388-89 (7th Cir. 1976); see
    (continued...)
    24                                                         No. 07-2117
    of willfulness, a rare situation, the Government may prove
    willfulness through circumstantial evidence. United States
    v. Britton, 
    289 F.3d 976
    , 981 (7th Cir. 2002).15
    Ms. Webber submits that the evidence at trial demon-
    strates that, although the business did exist on her premises
    and although she participated in some activities with
    respect to it, her response to the questions was not willfully
    false because she had a solid basis for believing that, given
    her medical condition, she was answering the questions
    truthfully. She asks us to read the record as demonstrating
    that she participated in activities only on very discrete
    occasions during a period when her overall medical
    condition prevented her from the sort of regular and
    sustained activity required to operate such a business. She
    notes that, during the period in question, she suffered
    from severe medical ailments that her physician described
    as debilitating to the point that they rendered her “pretty
    much non-functional.” Appellant’s Br. at 16.
    It was, of course, the duty of the jury to evaluate this
    argument. While the jury had before it Ms. Webber’s view
    of the situation, it also had before it the Government’s
    evidence that, in spite of her medical illnesses, Ms. Webber
    controlled Clearview: She managed Clearview’s finances;
    contracted with advertisers; completed and submitted
    wholesale and credit applications; ordered plant inventory;
    ordered fish inventory; picked up plant and fish inventory,
    which required long distance trips; waited on customers;
    14
    (...continued)
    also Pattern Crim. Fed. Jury Instructions for the Seventh Circuit
    4.09, available at http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/pjury.pdf.
    15
    See also United States v. Frokjer, 
    415 F.3d 865
    , 869 (8th Cir. 2005).
    No. 07-2117                                             25
    drew up landscape plans for customers; and rang up sales
    on the cash register. In light of this evidence, the jury
    certainly was entitled to reject the characterization that
    Ms. Webber offered of her medical condition. For in-
    stance, the jury had every right to reject as biased her
    own testimony, and that of her daughter and her neigh-
    bors, that she was too sick to work at Clearview.
    Indeed, the jury had a solid basis for rejecting Ms.
    Webber’s testimony. The jury heard the testimony of Postal
    Inspectors Kamradt and Husarik, who explained that Ms.
    Webber had provided inconsistent and false answers
    when the Inspectors asked her about her involvement
    with Clearview. Ms. Webber initially stated that she
    was unable to work at Clearview because of her condi-
    tion, that Clearview was her husband’s business and that
    he was its sole owner. The Inspectors specifically told Ms.
    Webber that they thought that she was being untruthful
    about her involvement in Clearview. Despite the Inspec-
    tors’ warning and her husband’s admission that she owned
    the business, Ms. Webber continued to maintain that she
    neither owned nor was involved with Clearview. When the
    Inspectors subsequently asked Ms. Webber what Julie
    Keller, a Clearview employee, would say if they were to
    ask her about Ms. Webber’s involvement in the business,
    she admitted that Keller would say that Ms. Webber was
    active in and ran the business. Ms. Webber’s attempt to
    conceal her ownership and management of Clearview is
    circumstantial evidence of her consciousness of guilt. See
    United States v. Rajewski, 
    526 F.2d 149
    , 158 (7th Cir.
    1975) (explaining that “[i]t is well settled that untrue
    exculpatory statements may be considered as circum-
    stantial evidence of the defendant’s consciousness of
    guilt”).
    26                                               No. 07-2117
    We also must stress that OWCP’s forms unambiguously
    explained the information regarding outside work that
    Ms. Webber had an obligation to disclose. The form
    stated that an applicant must “[r]eport ALL self-employ-
    ment or involvement in business enterprises” and
    explained that this disclosure must include, although not
    be limited to, “sales work, operating a business, including
    a store or a restaurant.” R.94, Ex. 5 at 1 (emphasis in
    original). The form further provided: “Report activities
    such as keeping books and records, or managing and/or
    overseeing a business of any kind, including a family
    business. Even if your activities were part-time or intermit-
    tent, you must report them.” 
    Id.
    These blunt, pointed statements make Ms. Webber’s
    claim that she did not believe that she was “meaningfully
    connected” with Clearview and, indeed, had minimal
    “involvement in it,” Appellant’s Br. at 17, beside the point.
    The language of the OWCP’s forms required specific
    information. They did not invite Ms. Webber to engage in
    self-evaluation; rather, they presented information for the
    Postal Service’s evaluation under its established proce-
    dures. Similarly, her reliance on the fact that she had
    disclosed freely the existence of Clearview to some of her
    coworkers at the Byron, Illinois Post Office does not
    excuse her obligations to answer the questions on the
    form with complete candor. Her obligation was to be
    completely truthful to those officials responsible for
    making a decision with respect to her FECA claim.
    From the totality of this evidence, the jury was entitled to
    conclude, beyond a reasonable doubt, that Ms. Webber
    had acted voluntarily, intentionally and with intent to do
    something the law forbids when she provided materially
    false information to the OWCP.
    No. 07-2117                                                   27
    C. Improper Jury Instructions
    Ms. Webber contends that the district court improperly
    instructed the jury to disregard evidence relevant to
    whether she acted willfully. We review de novo whether a
    district court’s jury instructions “fairly and accurately
    summarize[] the law.” United States v. Jefferson, 
    334 F.3d 670
    , 672 (7th Cir. 2003). In conducting such a review, we
    consider the jury instructions in their entirety, rather than
    in “artificial isolation.” United States v. Westmoreland, 
    122 F.3d 431
    , 434 (7th Cir. 1997); see also United States v. Collins,
    
    223 F.3d 502
    , 508 (7th Cir. 2000). The focus of our inquiry
    is whether the jury had a “complete understanding of
    the issues” and of the law governing those issues. United
    States v. Kelly, 
    167 F.3d 1176
    , 1179 (7th Cir. 1999). If the
    district court gave an erroneous instruction, we shall
    reverse “only if the jury’s comprehension of the issues
    was so misguided that it prejudiced the complaining
    party.” United States v. Smith, 
    103 F.3d 600
    , 606 (7th Cir.
    1996) (internal quotation marks and citation omitted).
    Ms. Webber submits that the district court improperly
    instructed the jury to disregard evidence relevant to her
    intent when it admonished the jury several times that
    evidence that certain Byron postal employees knew of the
    existence of Clearview was not a defense in the case. The
    district court’s admonishments, according to Ms. Webber,
    were too broad. Specifically, during Ms. Webber’s counsel’s
    direct examination of Ella Rose, a Byron Post Office
    employee, the court instructed the jury: “[J]ust because
    [Rose] as a postal employee knew that the defendant was
    engaged in this type of business is not a defense to the case.
    It may be relevant to other issues, but it’s not a defense.”
    R.86 at 543. Similarly, during Ms. Webber’s counsel’s direct
    examination of Jeff Engstrom, the postmaster at the Byron
    28                                                   No. 07-2117
    Post Office, the court stated: “Again, whether this wit-
    ness or other witnesses knew that she had this business or
    not is not a defense in the case. It may be relevant for other
    purposes.” 
    Id. at 654
    . Counsel explained, “I offer it for her
    mental state, Judge, and her intent.” 
    Id.
     The court re-
    sponded, “That we’ll reach. I said maybe for other pur-
    poses.” 
    Id.
     In its final jury instructions, the court explained
    that actual knowledge “by the government is not a defense
    to the materiality element.”16 R.54 at 3.17
    Ms. Webber claims that the two instructions that the
    court gave to the jury during the trial were overbroad
    because whether Byron postal employees knew about
    Clearview was relevant to and probative of her willfulness.
    In her view, it is less likely that, knowing that other postal
    employees knew about Clearview’s existence, she would lie
    willfully about its existence on OWCP forms.
    We agree with Ms. Webber that evidence that she had not
    concealed Clearview’s existence from Byron postal employ-
    16
    “A material statement is one that has a natural tendency to
    influence, or that is capable of affecting, a government function.”
    United States v. Moore, 
    446 F.3d 671
    , 681 (7th Cir. 2006); see also
    United States v. Henry, 
    164 F.3d 1304
    , 1308 & n.2 (10th Cir. 1999)
    (defining materiality in the context of 
    18 U.S.C. § 1920
     as a
    statement that “has a natural tendency to influence, or was
    capable of influencing, the decision of the tribunal in making
    the determination required to be made” (quoting United States
    v. Parsons, 
    967 F.2d 452
    , 455 (10th Cir. 1992)).
    17
    See also United States v. Johnson, 
    139 F.3d 1359
    , 1364 (11th Cir.
    1998) (“Actual knowledge by the government is not a defense to
    the ‘materiality’ requirement of false statement prosecutions.”);
    United States v. Rogers, 
    118 F.3d 466
    , 472 (6th Cir. 1997) (same);
    United States v. LeMaster, 
    54 F.3d 1224
    , 1230-31 (6th Cir. 1995).
    No. 07-2117                                                 29
    ees was relevant to her intent; we further agree that the
    court could have been more specific by instructing that
    actual knowledge is not a defense to the materiality element
    of the Government’s case. Nevertheless, when considered
    in their entirety, the court’s instructions were not legally
    erroneous; nor did they misguide the jury so as to prejudice
    Ms. Webber. In all of its instructions during the trial, the
    court stated that evidence of actual knowledge by the
    witnesses would be relevant for “other purposes.” R.86 at
    543, 654. Moreover, it allowed Ms. Webber’s counsel to
    argue repeatedly, during both opening and closing argu-
    ments, that Byron postal employees’ actual knowledge of
    Clearview disproved the willfulness element of the Gov-
    ernment’s case. See R.83 at 34-35, 38-39; R.88 at 1022, 1032-
    33, 1049, 1051, 1056. During closing argument, for example,
    counsel stated: “Mr. Engstrom is [Ms. Webber’s] employer.
    Don’t you think, ladies and gentlemen, that if Vickie
    Webber is acting in a crooked, fraudulent capacity, don’t
    you think that she would have hidden all that from her
    employer . . . ?” R.88 at 1033. Counsel further pointed out
    that Ms. Webber “put the [allegedly fraudulent] informa-
    tion on the form . . . kn[owing] full well that Mr. Engstrom
    knew otherwise” and asked, “Why in the world if [Ms.
    Webber is] a crook would she have done that?” Id. at 1022.
    Counsel’s arguments, many of which post-dated the
    district court’s allegedly overbroad instructions, made it
    clear to the jury that, although Ms. Webber’s failure to
    conceal Clearview’s existence from Byron postal employees
    was not relevant to the materiality element of the Govern-
    ment’s case, it was relevant to her intent.
    Finally, the district court instructed the jury on the use of
    circumstantial evidence. R.54 at 8 (“Circumstantial evi-
    dence is proof of a series of facts which tend to show
    30                                             No. 07-2117
    whether a defendant is guilty or not guilty. . . . All the
    evidence in the case, including circumstantial evidence,
    should be considered by you in reaching your verdict.”).
    This instruction permitted the jury to consider Ms.
    Webber’s candor about Clearview to Byron postal employ-
    ees as relevant and probative of her intent. When consid-
    ered in this context, the entirety of the district court’s
    instructions fairly and accurately informed the jury of the
    governing legal principles.
    D. Restitution Order
    Ms. Webber next submits that the district court erred in
    ordering her to pay $62,226.36 in restitution. R.77 at 6-7
    (judgment). The proper measure of loss for purposes of
    restitution, she submits, is the difference between the
    amount of benefits that she actually was paid and the
    amount of benefits to which she would have been entitled
    absent the fraud, the same calculation employed by the
    sentencing guidelines. See U.S.S.G. § 2B1.1(b)(1) & cmt.
    3(F)(ii). Although the district court determined that the
    amount of loss for guidelines purposes was $10,400, it
    nevertheless sentenced her to pay $62,226.36 in restitution.
    Ms. Webber contends that the court erred in importing a
    regulation, promulgated by the Secretary of Labor under 
    5 U.S.C. § 8149
    , into a criminal proceeding.
    The Government concedes that the $62,226.36 restitution
    award, which was the total amount of FECA benefits that
    Ms. Webber received, exceeded the loss sustained by the
    Government as the victim of Ms. Webber’s crime. See
    Appellee’s Br. at 44-48. The Government, however, submits
    that the district court was authorized to impose such a
    restitution order under 
    5 U.S.C. § 8148
     and 20 C.F.R.
    No. 07-2117                                                  31
    § 10.529. In support of this argument, the Government
    relies on United States v. Harms, 
    442 F.3d 367
    , 380-81 (5th
    Cir. 2006), although it recognizes that there is conflicting
    authority, see Appellee’s Br. at 46 & n.18 (citing United
    States v. Dawkins, 
    202 F.3d 711
    , 715 (4th Cir. 2000)). Accord-
    ing to the Government, “by ordering full restitution of
    $62,226.36, the district court did nothing more than enter
    the same judgment that the Department of Labor would
    have been entitled to in an administrative proceeding.”
    Appellee’s Br. at 48.
    We review de novo questions of law regarding the
    federal courts’ authority to order restitution, see United
    States v. Farr, 
    419 F.3d 621
    , 623 (7th Cir. 2005); we review
    for abuse of discretion a district court’s calculation of
    restitution, taking the evidence in the light most favorable
    to the Government, see United States v. Segal, 
    495 F.3d 826
    ,
    837 (7th Cir. 2007).
    1.
    Our cases, as well as those of our sister circuits, set forth
    the well-established principle that “[f]ederal courts cannot
    order restitution in a criminal case without a statutory
    basis.” United States v. Pawlinski, 
    374 F.3d 536
    , 540 (7th Cir.
    2004); United States v. Randle, 
    324 F.3d 550
    , 555 (7th Cir.
    2003); see also United States v. Hensley, 
    91 F.3d 274
    , 276 (1st
    Cir. 1996); United States v. Snider, 
    957 F.2d 703
    , 706 (9th Cir.
    1992) (per curiam). An order of restitution that is imposed
    without a statutory basis is “illegal.” Pawlinski, 
    374 F.3d at 540
    .
    The statutes authorizing the district court to impose
    restitution, the Victim and Witnesses Protection Act
    (“VWPA”), 
    18 U.S.C. § 3663
    , and the Mandatory Victim
    32                                                    No. 07-2117
    Restitution Act (“MVRA”), 18 U.S.C. § 3663A, authorize the
    imposition of restitution only for losses to the victim, here,
    the United States. See also United States v. Frith, 
    461 F.3d 914
    , 919 (7th Cir. 2006) (explaining that “[r]estitution orders
    are limited to: (1) losses caused by the specific conduct that
    is the basis of the offense of conviction; (2) losses caused by
    conduct committed during an offense that involves as an
    element a scheme, conspiracy, or pattern; and (3) restitu-
    tion agreed to in a plea agreement” (internal quotation
    marks and citation omitted)). These statutes “require[] that
    [a] restitution award be based on the amount of loss
    actually caused by the defendant’s offense.” United States v.
    Rhodes, 
    330 F.3d 949
    , 953 (7th Cir. 2003) (emphasis in
    original).18 Accordingly, “an order of restitution that
    exceeds the victim’s actual losses or damages is an illegal
    sentence.” United States v. Wolf, 
    90 F.3d 191
    , 194 n.2 (7th
    Cir. 1996); cf. Hughey, 495 U.S. at 413.
    As we already have noted, the Government, although
    conceding that the $62,226.36 restitution award, the total
    amount of FECA benefits that Ms. Webber received,
    exceeded the loss sustained by the Government, attempts
    to defend the district court’s action as authorized by 
    5 U.S.C. § 8148
     and 
    20 C.F.R. § 10.529
    , a federal regulation
    implementing section 8148. Therefore, we begin with the
    18
    See also Virgin Islands v. Davis, 
    43 F.3d 41
    , 44-45 (3d Cir. 1994);
    United States v. Patty, 
    992 F.2d 1045
    , 1049 (10th Cir. 1993); United
    States v. Diamond, 
    969 F.2d 961
    , 967-68 (10th Cir. 1992); United
    States v. Kenney, 
    789 F.2d 783
    , 784 (9th Cir. 1986); cf. Hughey v.
    United States, 
    495 U.S. 411
    , 413 (1990) (holding that the Victim
    and Witness Protection Act “authorize[s] an award of restitution
    only for the loss caused by the specific conduct that is the basis
    of the offense of conviction”).
    No. 07-2117                                                33
    language of this statute and regulation. Section 8148(a)
    provides:
    Any individual convicted of a violation of section 1920
    of title 18, or any other Federal or State criminal statute
    relating to fraud in the application for or receipt of any
    benefit under this subchapter or subchapter III of this
    chapter, shall forfeit (as of the date of such conviction)
    any entitlement to any benefit such individual would
    otherwise be entitled to under this subchapter or
    subchapter III for any injury occurring on or before the
    date of such conviction. Such forfeiture shall be in
    addition to any action the Secretary may take under
    section 8106 or 8129.
    
    5 U.S.C. § 8148
    (a) (emphases added). Federal regulation
    section 10.529 provides:
    (a) If an employee knowingly omits or understates any
    earnings or work activity in making a report, he or she
    shall forfeit the right to compensation with respect to
    any period for which the report was required. A false
    or evasive statement, omission, concealment, or mis-
    representation with respect to employment activity or
    earnings in a report may also subject an employee to
    criminal prosecution.
    (b) Where the right to compensation is forfeited, OWCP
    shall recover any compensation already paid for the
    period of forfeiture pursuant to 
    5 U.S.C. § 8129
     and
    other relevant statutes.
    
    20 C.F.R. § 10.529
     (emphases added).
    The plain language of section 8148(a) and its correspond-
    ing regulation establishes two principles. First, any em-
    ployee who violates 
    18 U.S.C. § 1920
     (or a similar criminal
    34                                                No. 07-2117
    provision) forfeits all of the benefits that he obtained
    during the period covered by the fraud. Second, section
    8148(a) and its corresponding regulation are forfeiture,
    rather than restitution, provisions.
    Forfeiture and restitution are distinct remedies. United
    States v. Leahy, 
    464 F.3d 773
    , 793 n.8 (7th Cir. 2006)
    (“[R]estitution and forfeiture serve different goals . . . .”).
    Restitution is remedial in nature, and its goal is to restore
    the victim’s loss. United States v. Browne, 
    505 F.3d 1229
    , 1281
    (11th Cir. 2007). Forfeiture, in contrast, is punitive; it seeks
    to disgorge any profits that the offender realized from his
    illegal activity. Browne, 
    505 F.3d at 1281
    . Given their
    distinct nature and goals, restitution is calculated based on
    the victim’s loss, while forfeiture is based on the offender’s
    gain. See United States v. George, 
    403 F.3d 470
    , 474 (7th Cir.
    2005). Different adjudicatory procedures apply, moreover,
    depending on which of these remedies the Government is
    seeking. Of particular importance in this case, the Federal
    Rules of Criminal Procedure explicitly provide that “[n]o
    judgment of forfeiture may be entered in a criminal
    proceeding unless the indictment or the information
    provides notice that the defendant has an interest in
    property that is subject to forfeiture in accordance with the
    applicable statute.” Fed. R. Crim. P. 7(c)(2); see also Fed. R.
    Crim. P. 32.2(1) (“A court must not enter a judgment of
    forfeiture in a criminal proceeding unless the indictment or
    information contains notice to the defendant that the
    government will seek the forfeiture of property as part of
    any sentence in accordance with the applicable statute.”).
    Additionally, a defendant, “in a case in which a jury
    returns a verdict of guilty,” has a statutory right to have the
    jury “determine whether the government has established
    the requisite nexus between the property and the offense
    No. 07-2117                                                35
    committed by the defendant.” Fed. R. Crim. P. 32.2(b)(4);
    Libretti v. United States, 
    516 U.S. 29
     (1995). Restitution,
    however, has no comparable requirements. See generally 
    18 U.S.C. § 3664
    (c) (discussing the procedures required for the
    issuance of an order of restitution).
    Despite these differences between forfeiture and restitu-
    tion, the Government nevertheless maintains that section
    8148 and its corresponding regulation, both of which by
    their plain language are forfeiture provisions, gave the
    district court the authority to impose on Ms. Webber an
    order of restitution that exceeded the actual loss to the
    Government. The Government relies on Harms, 
    442 F.3d at 380-81
    , a case in which the Fifth Circuit, pursuant to
    
    20 C.F.R. § 10.529
    , affirmed an order of restitution in excess
    of the victim’s losses. In Harms, a federal employee who
    had been convicted of violating 
    18 U.S.C. § 1920
     appealed
    the district court’s loss calculation under the sentencing
    guidelines as well as its restitution order. The district
    court had calculated the loss under the guidelines as the
    entire amount of benefits that the defendant had received;
    it imposed restitution in the same amount. The Fifth Circuit
    held that the loss calculation for sentencing guidelines
    purposes was the “difference between the amount the
    defendant actually received and the amount he would have
    received absent the fraud.” Harms, 442 F.3d at 380. Despite
    this holding, the court affirmed the restitution order. Id.
    The court held:
    [W]e reject Harms’s assertion that the district court
    erred in ordering restitution of all the benefits Harms
    received. The plain language of 
    20 C.F.R. § 10.529
    (a)
    provides that “[i]f an employee knowingly omits or
    understates any earnings or work activity in making a
    report, he or she shall forfeit the right to compensation
    with respect to any period for which the report is
    36                                                  No. 07-2117
    required.” See also [United States v.] Brothers, 955 F.2d
    [493,] 495 [(7th Cir. 2006)] (“If a claimant submits a
    false 1032 statement he forfeits the entire disability
    benefit even if he would have been entitled to a re-
    duced benefit if he had submitted an accurate 1032
    form.”); [United States v.] Dawkins, 202 F.3d [711,] 714-
    15 [(4th Cir. 2002)] (distinguishing between amount of
    forfeiture for purposes of restitution and amount of
    loss for purposes of sentencing). Thus, the district court
    did not err in ordering restitution of all the benefits [the
    defendant] received.
    
    Id.
    Respectfully, we cannot agree with the holding of Harms
    that 
    20 C.F.R. § 10.529
     authorizes a district court to impose
    restitution in an amount that exceeds the victim’s loss.
    Notably, the Fifth Circuit in Harms did not take into
    account, as far as we can tell from the opinion, the notice
    requirements mandated by the Federal Rules of Criminal
    Procedure. As we have noted, the authority relied upon by
    the court, 
    20 C.F.R. § 10.529
     (along with the corresponding
    statute, 
    5 U.S.C. § 8148
    (a)) is a forfeiture provision, a
    remedy distinct from restitution. Allowing the Government
    to use this provision to obtain a forfeiture under the guise
    of restitution would allow it improperly to circumvent the
    notice requirements of Rule 7(c)(2) and Rule 32.2(1).
    Furthermore, as support for its holding that 
    20 C.F.R. § 10.529
     authorizes a district court to impose an order of
    restitution in an amount that exceeds the victim’s loss,
    Harms relied on Dawkins, 
    202 F.3d at 715
    , a case that
    No. 07-2117                                                      37
    reaches a contrary result.19 See Harms, 
    442 F.3d at
    380 (citing
    Dawkins, 
    202 F.3d at 714-15
    ); see also United States v. Petruk,
    
    484 F.3d 1035
    , 1038 & n.3 (8th Cir. 2007) (noting that Harms
    and Dawkins are inconsistent).
    In Dawkins, the Fourth Circuit was presented with the
    same issue that arose in Harms. A district court had calcu-
    lated the loss under the guidelines as the entire amount of
    benefits that the defendant had received, and it imposed
    restitution in the same amount. Although noting that “the
    Government may be entitled to collect [the entire amount
    of benefits] via forfeiture, see 
    20 C.F.R. § 10.529
    ,” the Fourth
    Circuit explained that the forfeiture amount was “not
    necessarily the measure of loss for sentencing purposes.”
    Dawkins, 
    202 F.3d at 715
    . It held that, under a conviction for
    
    18 U.S.C. § 1920
    , the proper measure of loss for guidelines
    purposes is “the difference between the amount of benefits
    [the defendant] actually received and the amount he would
    have received had he truthfully and accurately completed
    the 1032 forms.” 
    Id.
     Notably, the court then vacated the
    amount of restitution: “As we have ordered the district
    court to recalculate the loss amount on remand, and the
    restitution amount depends on the amount of loss, see 18
    19
    Harms also cited our statement in United States v. Brothers, 
    955 F.2d 493
    , 495 (7th Cir. 2006): “If a claimant submits a false 1032
    form he forfeits the entire disability benefit even if he could have
    been entitled to a reduced benefit if he had submitted an
    accurate 1032 form.” Our decision in Brothers is not in conflict
    with our holding in this case. The court was not confronted with
    the issue of whether 
    5 U.S.C. § 8148
     supports an order of
    restitution rather than one of forfeiture; we also note that the
    statement cited by Harms appears in the fact section of the
    opinion and appears not to have influenced directly the
    court’s holding. Brothers, 955 F.2d at 495.
    38                                                 No. 07-2117
    U.S.C. §§ 3663A(a)(1), (c)(1)(A)(ii), 3664(f)(1)(A), the district
    court will necessarily have to reconsider the matter of
    restitution.” Dawkins, 
    202 F.3d at 715
    . The court thus
    declined to allow the Government, under the guise of 
    5 U.S.C. § 8148
     and 
    20 C.F.R. § 10.529
    , to recover restitution
    in an amount that exceeded the victim’s loss. This position
    conflicts with the Fifth Circuit’s holding in Harms.
    Therefore, we hold that 
    5 U.S.C. § 8148
    (a) and 
    20 C.F.R. § 10.529
    , being forfeiture provisions, do not provide an
    adequate basis to support a district court’s order of restitu-
    tion in excess of the victim’s loss.
    2.
    We note, nevertheless, that the Government generally
    may seek a forfeiture order in a criminal proceeding pursu-
    ant to these provisions. Under 
    28 U.S.C. § 2461
    (c), “[i]f a
    person is charged in a criminal case with a violation of an
    Act of Congress for which the civil or criminal forfeiture of
    property is authorized, the Government may include notice
    of the forfeiture in the indictment or information pursuant
    to the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure.” The statute
    further provides that, “[i]f the defendant is convicted of the
    offense giving rise to the forfeiture, the court shall order
    the forfeiture of the property as part of the sentence in the
    criminal case.” Id.; see also United States v. Silvious, 
    512 F.3d 364
    , 370 (7th Cir. 2007).
    In this case, however, the Government may not rely on
    this statutory provision because the proper notification
    procedures were not followed. Rule 32.2 of the Federal
    Rules of Criminal Procedure provides that “[a] court must
    not enter a judgment of forfeiture in a criminal proceeding
    unless the indictment or information contains notice to the
    defendant that the government will seek the forfeiture of
    No. 07-2117                                                    39
    property as part of any sentence in accordance with the
    applicable statute.” See also Fed. R. Crim. P. 7(c)(2). The
    indictment filed against Ms. Webber, see R.1, does not
    reference 
    5 U.S.C. § 8148
    , 
    20 C.F.R. § 10.529
     or, for that
    matter, any forfeiture provision.20
    Because the amount of restitution that the district court
    ordered Ms. Webber to pay exceeds the Government’s
    losses, it constitutes an illegal sentence. Pawlinski, 
    374 F.3d at 540
    ; Randle, 
    324 F.3d at 555
    . We therefore reverse the
    district court’s order of restitution and remand the case for
    limited resentencing on the issue of restitution.21
    20
    See United States v. Silvious, 
    512 F.3d 364
    , 370 (7th Cir. 2007)
    (holding that, although the indictment listed the wrong forfei-
    ture statute, sufficient notice had been provided because the
    indictment informed the defendant that the Government
    intended to seek forfeiture and identified the targeted assets).
    21
    Nothing in this opinion shall prevent the Department of Labor
    from instituting a civil forfeiture action, as permitted by
    
    5 U.S.C. § 8148
    , 
    20 C.F.R. § 10.529
     and other relevant authority,
    against Ms. Webber to recover the $62,226.36 that she ob-
    tained in FECA benefits.
    40                                             No. 07-2117
    Conclusion
    For the foregoing reasons, we affirm Ms. Webber’s
    conviction, and we reverse the district court’s restitution
    order and remand the case for resentencing proceedings
    consistent with this opinion.
    AFFIRMED in part;
    REVERSED and REMANDED in part
    USCA-02-C-0072—7-29-08