Garcia-Ramirez v. Gonzales ( 2005 )


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  •                      FOR PUBLICATION
    UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
    FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT
    MARGARITA GARCIA-RAMIREZ,                   
    Petitioner,                   No. 02-73543
    v.
            Agency No.
    A75-268-464
    ALBERTO R. GONZALES, Attorney
    General,*                                             OPINION
    Respondent.
    
    On Petition for Review of an Order of the
    Board of Immigration Appeals
    Argued and Submitted
    February 9, 2004—Seattle, Washington
    Filed August 26, 2005
    Before: Dorothy W. Nelson, Raymond C. Fisher and
    Ronald M. Gould, Circuit Judges.
    Per Curiam Opinion;
    Concurrence by Judge Fisher;
    Concurrence by Judge Gould
    *Alberto Gonzales is substituted for his predecessor, John Ashcroft, as
    Attorney General of the United States, pursuant to Fed. R. App. P.
    43(c)(2).
    11645
    GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES                      11649
    COUNSEL
    Manuel F. Rios, Rios Cantor, P.S., Seattle, Washington, for
    the petitioner.
    Anthony P. Nicastro, Office of Immigration Counsel, Wash-
    ington, D.C., for the respondent.
    OPINION
    PER CURIAM:
    Petitioner Margarita Garcia-Ramirez, a native and citizen
    of Mexico, petitions for review of a decision of the Board of
    Immigration Appeals (“BIA”), affirming without opinion an
    Immigration Judge (“IJ”) decision denying her application for
    cancellation of removal because of her failure to establish 10
    years of continuous physical presence in the United States.
    Garcia-Ramirez asserts that the BIA and IJ impermissibly
    applied the continuous presence requirement of 8 U.S.C.
    § 1229b(d)(2) (the “90/180-day rule”)1 retroactively to find
    1
    The 90/180-day rule provides that “[a]n alien shall be considered to
    have failed to maintain continuous physical presence in the United States
    under subsections (b)(1) and (b)(2) of this section if the alien has departed
    from the United States for any period in excess of 90 days or for any peri-
    ods in the aggregate exceeding 180 days.” 8 U.S.C. § 1229b(d)(2). All
    statutory citations hereinafter are to 8 U.S.C. unless otherwise indicated.
    11650               GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES
    her automatically ineligible for cancellation of removal
    because she departed the United States for five months
    between April and September 1989. Our prior decisions gov-
    erning similar claims under the transitional rules of the Illegal
    Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of
    1996 (“IIRIRA”), Pub. L. No. 104-208, § 309(c), compel us
    to reject her claim.
    I.
    Garcia-Ramirez entered the United States illegally in May
    1988 and has, but for one absence, lived in the country contin-
    uously since then. In April 1989, Garcia-Ramirez left the
    United States to visit family in Mexico. She returned to the
    United States in September 1989. It is the effect of this five-
    month absence on her accrual of time of continuous presence
    in the United States that is the crux of this appeal.
    On April 10, 1997, the Immigration and Naturalization Ser-
    vice (“INS”)2 initiated removal proceedings against Garcia-
    Ramirez as an alien present in the United States without being
    admitted or paroled. The parties agree that Garcia-Ramirez’s
    accrual of physical presence time ended on October 7, 1998,
    when she was served with a notice to appear before an IJ.3 On
    March 1, 1999, Garcia-Ramirez appeared in immigration
    court, admitted to the allegations in the notice to appear and
    requested that the IJ grant her cancellation of removal relief
    2
    On March 1, 2003, the INS was abolished as an agency within the
    Department of Justice and its functions were transferred to the newly cre-
    ated Department of Homeland Security.
    3
    Under IIRIRA, an alien’s accrual of physical presence time ends when
    removal proceedings are commenced against the alien through service of
    a notice to appear before an IJ. § 1229b(d)(1). The INS initially served
    Garcia-Ramirez with a notice to appear on April 10, 1997. However, this
    notice failed to specify the date or location of Garcia-Ramirez’s immigra-
    tion hearing. Garcia-Ramirez was not served with a proper hearing notice
    until October 7, 1998. Under § 1229(a), service of this second notice to
    appear ended Garcia-Ramirez’s accrual of physical presence.
    GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES              11651
    under § 1229b(b)(1) or, in the alternative, voluntary depar-
    ture.
    The IJ found Garcia-Ramirez removable as charged and
    denied her request for cancellation of removal. In order to be
    eligible for cancellation of removal, Garcia-Ramirez had to
    demonstrate continuous physical presence in the United States
    of not less than 10 years. § 1229b(b)(1)(A). Applying the
    90/180-day rule of § 1229b(d)(2), the IJ found that Garcia-
    Ramirez’s five-month absence in 1989 had interrupted her
    otherwise continuous presence between May 1988 and the
    service of her notice to appear in October 1998. Because
    Garcia-Ramirez’s trip lasted more than 90 days, and less than
    10 years had elapsed between her reentry in September 1989
    and service of the notice to appear, the IJ determined that
    Garcia-Ramirez was ineligible for cancellation of removal.
    The IJ granted Garcia-Ramirez’s alternative request for vol-
    untary departure.
    Garcia-Ramirez appealed to the BIA, which affirmed the
    IJ’s decision without an opinion. Garcia-Ramirez thereafter
    filed her petition for review with our court. We have jurisdic-
    tion under § 1252(a) and deny the petition for review.
    II.
    Garcia-Ramirez asserts that the 90/180-day rule in
    § 1229b(d)(2) cannot be applied to her because that provision
    did not become law until 1997, and she left and reentered the
    United States in 1989. She maintains that because she would
    have remained eligible for cancellation of removal under the
    law in effect at the time of her departure and reentry,
    § 1229b(d)(2) retroactively eliminates her preexisting right to
    relief from removal and thereby offends due process. We first
    address the government’s argument that we do not have juris-
    diction to review the petition and then turn to the merits of
    Garcia-Ramirez’s claim.
    11652             GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES
    A. Jurisdiction
    [1] The government challenges our jurisdiction to review
    Garcia-Ramirez’s petition, asserting that she failed to exhaust
    administrative remedies because she did not present her retro-
    activity claim to the BIA. Under § 1252(d)(1) we “may
    review a final order of removal only if the alien has exhausted
    all administrative remedies available to the alien as of right.”
    Bagues-Valles v. INS, 
    779 F.2d 483
    , 484 (9th Cir. 1985); see
    also 
    id. (“As a
    general rule, issues not raised before an admin-
    istrative tribunal cannot be raised on appeal from that tribu-
    nal.”). Because the BIA does not have jurisdiction to resolve
    constitutional challenges, however, due process claims —
    other than those alleging only “procedural errors” within the
    BIA’s power to redress — are exempt from this administra-
    tive exhaustion requirement. Vargas v. INS, 
    831 F.2d 906
    ,
    908 (9th Cir. 1987).
    [2] Garcia-Ramirez’s claim is properly viewed as an asser-
    tion that application of the 90/180-day rule of § 1229b(d)(2)
    to her violates due process because of impermissible retroac-
    tivity. See INS v. St. Cyr, 
    533 U.S. 289
    , 316 (2001) (recogniz-
    ing that Congress has the power to enact retroactive
    legislation, but confirming that there are constitutional limits
    on retroactivity). Retroactivity challenges to immigration laws
    implicate legitimate due process considerations that need not
    be exhausted in administrative proceedings because the BIA
    cannot give relief on such claims. See 
    Bagues-Valles, 779 F.2d at 484
    . Accordingly, we have jurisdiction to review
    Garcia-Ramirez’s retroactivity claim even though it was not
    raised before the BIA.
    B. Retroactivity
    [3] We turn to the merits of Garcia-Ramirez’s claim that
    the IJ should not have applied the 90/180-day rule of
    § 1229b(d)(2) to find that her five-month absence in 1989 ter-
    minated continuous physical presence. Section 1229b(d)(2)
    GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES               11653
    provides a bright-line rule that an alien “shall be considered
    to have failed to maintain continuous physical presence in the
    United States” if the alien “has departed from the United
    States for any period in excess of 90 days or for any periods
    in the aggregate exceeding 180 days.” Garcia-Ramirez does
    not contest that if § 1229b(d)(2) applies retroactively, her
    five-month absence in 1989 would violate the 90/180-day
    rule.
    [4] From 1986 until IIRIRA’s effective date in April 1997,
    however, the relevant statute provided that a departure from
    the United States did not break continuous presence if it was
    “brief, casual, and innocent and did not meaningfully interrupt
    the [alien’s] continuous physical presence” in the United
    States. § 1254(b)(2) (1995). “The evident statutory purpose
    [of this standard was] to recognize that a person who lives for
    [the requisite number of years] in the United States does not
    destroy [her] eligibility by actions that do not affect [her]
    commitment to living in this country.” Castrejon-Garcia v.
    INS, 
    60 F.3d 1359
    , 1362 (9th Cir. 1995). Under this pre-
    IIRIRA rule, “[f]or purposes of evaluating whether an
    absence is brief, single absences in excess of 90 days . . . will
    be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.” 8 C.F.R.
    § 240.64(b)(1); 8 C.F.R. § 1240.64(b)(1). Garcia-Ramirez
    contends that the more flexible § 1254 standard must be used
    to evaluate her continuous presence because applying
    § 1229b(d)(2) would be impermissibly retroactive.
    1.
    [5] In its landmark decision in Landgraf v. USI Film Prod-
    ucts, 
    511 U.S. 244
    (1994), the Supreme Court set forth the
    principles we must consider in determining whether a statute
    should be applied retroactively. Noting that “the presumption
    against retroactive legislation is deeply rooted in our jurispru-
    dence, and embodies a legal doctrine centuries older than our
    Republic,” the Court stated in plain terms that,
    11654             GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES
    [e]lementary considerations of fairness dictate that
    individuals should have an opportunity to know what
    the law is and to conform their conduct accordingly;
    settled expectations should not be lightly disrupted.
    For that reason, the “principle that the legal effect of
    conduct should ordinarily be assessed under the law
    that existed when the conduct took place has time-
    less and universal appeal.”
    
    Id. at 265
    (quoting Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical Corp. v.
    Bonjorno, 
    494 U.S. 827
    , 855 (1990) (Scalia, J., concurring));
    see INS v. St. 
    Cyr, 533 U.S. at 316
    .
    [6] In light of these principles, the Court articulated a two-
    step approach for evaluating when the normal presumption
    against retroactivity should not apply. Our “first task” under
    Landgraf is to “determine whether Congress has expressly
    prescribed the statute’s proper reach.” 
    Landgraf, 511 U.S. at 280
    . If Congress has clearly expressed that a law should be
    applied to conduct occurring before its enactment, our inquiry
    ends and we must defer to Congress’ command. Otherwise,
    we proceed to Landgraf’s second step and ask “whether the
    new statute would have retroactive effect, i.e., whether it
    would impair rights a party possessed when he acted, increase
    a party’s liability for past conduct, or impose new duties with
    respect to transactions already completed.” 
    Id. If the
    new law
    would have such a retroactive effect, the “traditional pre-
    sumption teaches that [the new statute] does not govern . . . .”
    
    Id. 2. The
    first step of Landgraf requires us to “ascertain whether
    Congress has directed with the requisite clarity that the law be
    applied retrospectively.” St. 
    Cyr, 533 U.S. at 316
    . The
    Supreme Court has cautioned that “[t]he standard for finding
    such unambiguous direction is a demanding one.” 
    Id. “[C]ases where
    [the Supreme] Court has found truly ‘retroactive’ effect
    GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES                      11655
    adequately authorized by a statute have involved statutory
    language that was so clear that it could sustain only one inter-
    pretation.” Lindh v. Murphy, 
    521 U.S. 320
    , 328 n.4 (1997).
    Garcia-Ramirez argues that under this exacting standard, con-
    gressional intent to apply the 90/180-day rule retroactively
    cannot be found because § 1229b(d)(2) contains no statement
    as to its intended temporal reach.
    [7] Prior circuit law compels us to reject her argument. We
    have held, in a series of related cases, that IIRIRA’s “transi-
    tional rules,” which govern application of IIRIRA’s perma-
    nent provisions to cases that were pending on IIRIRA’s
    effective date, contain unambiguous congressional intent that
    the Act’s stop-time4 and 90/180-day rules apply retroactively.
    Although the transitional rules do not directly govern Garcia-
    Ramirez’s case, it would be incongruous to hold that Con-
    gress intended to apply the 90/180-day rule to petitioners gov-
    erned by those rules, but not to Garcia-Ramirez.
    [8] When Congress enacted IIRIRA, it included in the stat-
    ute a set of “transitional rules” specifying that particular pro-
    visions of the permanent statute should apply to petitioners
    against whom the INS had already initiated proceedings
    before the statute’s effective date. See IIRIRA § 309(c). These
    transitional rules expressly provide that two of IIRIRA’s pro-
    visions relating to continuous presence — the stop-time rule
    and the 90/180-day rule — “shall apply to orders to show
    cause . . . issued before, on, or after the date of the enactment
    of this Act.” IIRIRA § 309(c)(5)(A) (emphasis added).
    4
    The “stop-time” rule provides that “any period of continuous residence
    or continuous physical presence in the United States shall be deemed to
    end (A) except in the case of an alien who applies for cancellation of
    removal under subsection (b)(2) of this section, when the alien is served
    a notice to appear under § 1229(a) of this title, or (B) when the alien has
    committed [certain criminal offenses], whichever is earliest.”
    § 1229b(d)(1).
    11656             GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES
    We first addressed this “before, on, or after” language in
    Ram v. INS, 
    243 F.3d 510
    (9th Cir. 2001). Ram argued that
    the stop-time rule — which specifies that an alien’s period of
    continuous physical presence ends when deportation proceed-
    ings begin — could not be applied to his petition because the
    INS had initiated proceedings against him before IIRIRA took
    effect and application of the rule to him would have an imper-
    missible retroactive effect. We disagreed. We found unambig-
    uous the statute’s instruction that the stop-time rule be applied
    to petitioners who fall under the transitional rules whose
    orders to show cause were “issued before, on, or after the date
    of enactment [of IIRIRA],” and also relied on IIRIRA’s legis-
    lative history, which suggested that Congress intended the
    transitional rules to apply the stop-time rule retroactively. See
    
    Ram, 243 F.3d at 515-18
    (quoting IIRIRA § 309(c)(5)(A)).
    We later followed Ram in Mendiola-Sanchez v. Ashcroft,
    
    381 F.3d 937
    (9th Cir. 2004), to hold that § 309(c)(5)(A)
    requires retroactive application of the 90/180-day rule as well.
    The Mendiolas, whose case was governed by the transitional
    rules, argued that a five-month trip they took in 1993 should
    not bar their eligibility for suspension of deportation because
    the pre-IIRIRA “brief, casual, and innocent” standard rather
    than IIRIRA’s 90/180-day rule should apply to their petition.
    We rejected their claim, reasoning that “it is very unlikely that
    Congress intended to apply only the stop-time rule retroac-
    tively, and not the 90/180-day rule. IIRIRA § 309(c)(5)(a)
    states that both provisions apply to aliens whose deportation
    proceedings were pending on the date of IIRIRA’s enactment
    and there is no indication that the two provisions should be
    applied differently.” 
    Id. at 941.
    [9] These cases compel us to reach the same conclusion
    here. Garcia-Ramirez correctly argues that § 1229b(d)(2) does
    not reflect an express congressional intent that it should be
    applied retroactively, and we agree with her that use of the
    past present tense — “an alien shall be considered to have
    failed to maintain continuous presence” if the alien “has
    GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES               11657
    departed” from the United States for more than 90 days — is
    an insufficient ground from which to infer such intent under
    the Landgraf standard. Mendiola-Sanchez, however, holds
    that the broader IIRIRA statute, specifically § 309(c)(5)(a) of
    the transitional rules, does contain unambiguous congressio-
    nal intent that the 90/180-day rule be applied retroactively.
    Although the INS did not initiate proceedings against Garcia-
    Ramirez until after IIRIRA’s effective date, and thus the tran-
    sitional rules do not govern her petition, § 309(c)(5)(a) is part
    of the IIRIRA statute and stands as persuasive evidence, as
    construed by Mendiola-Sanchez, that Congress intended to
    apply the 90/180-day rule to non-citizens who, like the Men-
    diolas and Garcia-Ramirez, left the country for periods of
    more than 90 days before IIRIRA’s passage.
    Declining to apply the 90/180-day rule here would there-
    fore produce an incongruous result. Garcia-Ramirez’s circum-
    stances closely resemble those of the Mendiolas, whose
    claims were arguably even more compelling than those of
    Garcia-Ramirez. She entered the country illegally in May
    1988 and has lived in the country continuously since that date
    with the exception of her five-month trip in 1989 to visit fam-
    ily in Mexico. The Mendiolas, however, had continuously
    resided in the United States for even longer, since 1983. After
    accumulating 10 years of continuous presence in the United
    States, Mendiola took a six-month trip to Mexico in 1993 to
    care for his parents and was joined by his son for five months
    of that trip. Although Mendiola’s wife and daughter, who had
    not traveled to Mexico, received relief from deportation, we
    upheld the BIA’s application of the 90/180-day rule to Mr.
    Mendiola and his son.
    The legal distinction between these two cases derives solely
    from the fortuity that the INS initiated proceedings against the
    Mendiolas one day before IIRIRA’s effective date but did not
    place Garcia-Ramirez in removal proceedings until after the
    statute became effective. The transitional rules thus controlled
    the Mendiolas’ case, whereas the permanent provisions apply
    11658            GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES
    to Garcia-Ramirez. Neither Garcia-Ramirez nor the Men-
    diolas could have known when they took their trips to Mexico
    that the “brief, casual, and innocent” standard would be abro-
    gated and replaced with IIRIRA’s 90-day bright line rule, and
    the Mendiolas, who received their orders to show cause
    before IIRIRA’s effective date, seemingly have the more
    compelling argument that IIRIRA’s new provisions should
    not apply to them.
    [10] Because we have already held that IIRIRA’s transi-
    tional rules contain express congressional intent to apply the
    90/180-day rule to petitioners who left the country for more
    than 90 days before IIRIRA’s passage, we conclude that we
    are required to apply the rule to all such petitioners, whether
    their cases are governed by the transitional rules or IIRIRA’s
    permanent provisions.
    Petition DENIED.
    FISHER, Circuit Judge, with whom D. W. NELSON, Senior
    Circuit Judge, joins, concurring:
    Although we hold that Mendiola-Sanchez v. Ashcroft, 
    381 F.3d 937
    (9th Cir. 2004), compels us to affirm application of
    the 90/180-day rule to Garcia-Ramirez, we do so reluctantly
    because we remain unconvinced that Ram v. INS, 
    243 F.3d 510
    (9th Cir. 2001), required the result reached in Mendiola-
    Sanchez, and because we believe that Garcia-Ramirez would
    have prevailed under the second step of the retroactivity test
    articulated in Landgraf v. USI Film Products, 
    511 U.S. 244
    (1994).
    The Mendiola-Sanchez panel articulated its own regret in
    holding that the 90/180-day rule must apply retroactively to
    the Mendiolas:
    GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES               11659
    Although we deny the petition for review because
    that is the proper conclusion under the relevant stat-
    utes, we pause in recognition of the injustice of this
    result. . . . The only reason the Mendiolas are ineligi-
    ble for suspension of deportation is that they stayed
    too long in Mexico to help Mr. Mendiola-Sanchez’s
    elderly parents recover from unexpected injuries.
    
    Mendiola-Sanchez, 381 F.3d at 941
    . Nonetheless, the panel
    concluded that the “core of the reasoning in Ram applie[d] to
    the 90/180 day rule” and that it was “very unlikely that Con-
    gress intended to apply only the stop-time rule retroactively,
    and not the 90/180 day rule.” 
    Id. at 940-41.
    Accordingly, the
    panel held that Ram controlled and denied the Mendiolas’
    petition for relief.
    We do not think that Ram required the result in Mendiola-
    Sanchez. Section 309(c)(5)(A) of IIRIRA (included in the
    statute’s “transitional rules”) instructs that the stop-time and
    90/180-day rules should be applied to petitioners whose cases
    were pending on IIRIRA’s effective date whether their orders
    to show cause were issued “on, before, or after” IIRIRA’s
    enactment. With regard to the stop-time rule, this provision
    constitutes unambiguous congressional intent that the statute
    be applied retroactively: regardless of when an alien’s order
    to show cause was issued, her accrued continuous presence
    time must, under § 309(c)(5)(A), stop on that date. Applica-
    tion of § 309(c)(5)(A) to the 90/180-day rule, however, is
    slightly more complicated because it changes the rules as to
    actions the petitioner has already taken.
    Under Ram, § 309(c)(5)(A) requires that the 90/180-day
    rule apply to petitioners whose cases were pending when
    IIRIRA became effective, but Ram has no effect on a subse-
    quent question — whether even if the 90/180-day rule applies
    to a petitioner’s case, it applies to trips that she took before
    Congress passed IIRIRA. The Mendiola-Sanchez panel did
    not consider this second question, not present in Ram, before
    11660            GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES
    reaching its conclusion that Ram controlled. On a blank slate,
    we would construe § 309(c)(5)(A) as expressing congressio-
    nal intent to apply the 90/180-day rule to all petitioners whose
    cases were pending when IIRIRA became effective on April
    1, 1997, but only to their absences from the country that post-
    date IIRIRA’s enactment on September 30, 1996. Admittedly,
    the rule would then affect only a very small class of petition-
    ers. But applying the Landgraf standard, we would not read
    the statute to attach penalties to trips taken before Congress
    passed IIRIRA, absent express, unambiguous congressional
    intent to do so.
    Further, if Mendiola-Sanchez erred in finding congressional
    intent in § 309(c)(5)(A) — which we respectfully think it did
    but which we accept as binding on us — we believe that
    Garcia-Ramirez would be entitled to a remand for reconsider-
    ation of her petition under the old standard. Where Congress
    has not clearly specified otherwise, the traditional presump-
    tion against retroactivity applies if the statute would have
    retroactive effect.
    A statute has retroactive effect when it takes away or
    impairs vested rights acquired under existing laws,
    or creates a new obligation, imposes a new duty, or
    attaches a new disability, in respect to transactions
    or considerations already past.
    INS v. St. Cyr, 
    533 U.S. 289
    , 321 (2001) (quoting 
    Landgraf, 511 U.S. at 269
    ) (internal quotation marks omitted) (emphasis
    added). Retroactivity analysis involves a “commonsense,
    functional judgment about whether the new provision
    attaches new legal consequences to events completed before
    its enactment,” and is “informed and guided by familiar con-
    siderations of fair notice, reasonable reliance, and settled
    expectations.” 
    Id. (quoting Martin
    v. Hadix, 
    527 U.S. 343
    ,
    357-58 (1999)) (internal quotation marks omitted) (emphasis
    added).
    GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES               11661
    On its face, the application of § 1229b(d)(2) to Garcia-
    Ramirez long after the fact of her 1989 five-month trip to
    Mexico clearly “attach[es] a new disability, in respect to [a
    transaction] already past.” 
    Id. At the
    time she took her trip,
    Garcia-Ramirez risked that her absence would later be judged
    not to have been “brief, casual, and innocent,” thereby effec-
    tively restarting the clock when she returned in 1990. She did
    not have an assurance, therefore, that her departure and return
    would have no adverse effect; but she likewise did not have
    reason to believe that her five-month absence would automat-
    ically negate her accrued time and restart the clock — which
    is the effect of applying the new bright-line rule of the 1997
    statute. “There is a clear difference, for the purposes of retro-
    activity analysis, between facing possible deportation and fac-
    ing certain deportation.” 
    Id. at 325.
    Because applying
    § 1229b(d)(2) to Garcia-Ramirez “attaches new legal conse-
    quences to events completed before its enactment,” doing so
    has an impermissibly retroactive effect. 
    Id. at 321
    (quoting
    
    Martin, 527 U.S. at 357-58
    (quoting 
    Landgraf, 511 U.S. at 270
    )).
    Elementary notions of fairness and fair notice, reasonable
    reliance, settled expectations and commonsense also counsel
    in favor of applying the traditional presumption of nonretroac-
    tivity. When Garcia-Ramirez took her trip, she had no reason
    to believe that her absence would automatically disqualify her
    from eligibility for relief; she could reasonably rely on the law
    at the time as governing the effects of her departure. The
    change in law should not, absent clearly expressed Congres-
    sional intent, bar her eligibility retroactively. When a statute
    converts a five-month trip from a risk of losing eligibility for
    relief from removal to an automatic certainty, what greater
    need is there for notice and a chance to conform one’s behav-
    ior to the new, bright-line rule? This is a paradigm instance
    of the law imposing a new legal disability based on an event
    completed before the law changed. Nonetheless, because
    Judge Gould does not agree with us, we will address the spe-
    cific arguments for and against retroactivity.
    11662             GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES
    Section 1229b(d)(2) should be impermissibly retroactive as
    applied to Garcia-Ramirez because the 90/180-day rule auto-
    matically makes her ineligible for cancellation of removal,
    whereas she would not be automatically ineligible for such
    relief under the pre-IIRIRA “brief, casual, and innocent” stan-
    dard. She did not seek an assurance that her absence was in
    fact “brief, casual, and innocent”; instead, she sought eligibil-
    ity to argue this point to the BIA on remand. Analogously, in
    St. Cyr, the Supreme Court held that IIRIRA’s elimination of
    discretionary relief for aliens convicted of aggravated felonies
    could not be applied retroactively to an alien who had pled
    guilty before IIRIRA’s effective date. See 
    id. at 326.
    Although Garcia-Ramirez cannot point to the kind of quid
    pro quo that the Supreme Court presumed to have occurred in
    St. Cyr — a guilty plea — the Court has by no means set forth
    quid pro quo as the only route for demonstrating that a statute
    is impermissibly retroactive. Rather, “[n]o single consider-
    ation is essential. Retroactivity analysis under Landgraf
    requires independent analysis of whatever factors may apply,
    any of which can ground a finding of impermissible retroac-
    tive application.” Chang v. United States, 
    327 F.3d 911
    , 920
    n.8 (9th Cir. 2003); see also Hughes Aircraft Co. v. United
    States, 
    520 U.S. 939
    , 947 (1997) (emphasizing that “the Court
    has used various formulations to describe the functional con-
    ceptio[n] of legislative retroactivity”) (internal quotation
    marks omitted); Restrepo v. McElroy, 
    369 F.3d 627
    , 637 (2d
    Cir. 2004) (“[T]he Court never suggested that all parties who
    claim that a statute has a retroactive effect must show the dis-
    ruption of a quid pro quo exchange. And it would be out of
    keeping with the reasoning of St. Cyr [ ] to read such a quid
    pro quo requirement into that opinion. For in St. Cyr [ ], the
    Court observed that ‘categorical arguments are not particu-
    larly helpful in undertaking Landgraf’s commonsense, func-
    tional retroactivity analysis.’ ”) (quoting St. 
    Cyr, 533 U.S. at 324
    ).
    GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES                      11663
    Nor does our circuit law impose an additional requirement
    that in order to establish reliance on the old law, a petitioner
    must in all circumstances demonstrate actual, subjective reli-
    ance or a quid pro quo exchange to establish impermissible
    retroactivity. “Reasonable reliance may itself be based upon
    a quid pro quo, as in St. Cyr . . . or merely on assurances as
    to the current status of the law.” 
    Chang, 327 F.3d at 920
    n.8
    (citation omitted) (holding that new INS rules could not be
    applied to investors whose petitions were approved before the
    rules were promulgated, because they would impose a new
    exhaustion requirement and take away the right of appeal
    without fair notice); see also Kankamalage v. INS, 
    335 F.3d 858
    , 863 (9th Cir. 2003) (applying St. Cyr and concluding that
    a regulation impermissibly attached a new disability to an
    alien’s guilty plea, without examining whether the alien spe-
    cifically bargained for eligibility at the time of the plea);
    United States v. Velasco-Medina, 
    305 F.3d 839
    , 849-50 (9th
    Cir. 2002) (holding that Velasco-Medina could not have rea-
    sonably relied on the possibility of relief under the legal land-
    scape at the time he entered his guilty plea).1
    Thus we disagree with Judge Gould that applying St. Cyr
    to Garcia-Ramirez’s situation would constitute an extension
    1
    Judge Gould challenges our reliance on Kankamalage and Velasco-
    Medina, stating that “these cases do not assist in de-emphasizing the
    importance the Supreme Court in St. Cyr placed on reasonable reliance,
    settled expectations and vested interests.” Judge Gould concurrence at
    11675. We agree that these cases require reasonable reliance, but objec-
    tively reasonable reliance. As both cases involve guilty pleas, they follow
    St. Cyr in holding that a guilty plea is evidence of reasonable reliance and
    do not speak to the question of what other circumstances might evidence
    reliance. In discussing the defendants’ reliance and expectations, both
    cases turn on the state of the law at the time that the plea was entered, not
    on the defendant’s subjective expectations at that time. Thus, we held that,
    unlike St. Cyr and Kankamalage, Velasco-Medina did not have settled
    expectations of § 212(c) relief because AEDPA put him on notice that
    such relief might not be available and his expectations “must have been
    shaped by the then-current legal landscape.” 
    Velasco-Medina, 305 F.3d at 849
    .
    11664             GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES
    either of St. Cyr or of retroactivity analysis more generally.
    Indeed, both the Third and the Fourth Circuits have recently
    rejected the contention that retroactivity analysis requires
    actual reliance or the type of quid pro quo exchange present
    in St. Cyr. See Ponnapula v. Ashcroft, 
    373 F.3d 480
    , 491-93
    & n.9 (3d Cir. 2004) (holding that Supreme Court law
    requires “reasonable” not “actual” reliance, observing that
    “St. Cyr was an easy case on the retroactivity issue,” and not-
    ing that the presence of a quid pro quo is evidence of a reli-
    ance interest); Olatunji v. Ashcroft, 
    387 F.3d 383
    (4th Cir.
    2004) (holding that consideration of reliance is irrelevant to
    statutory retroactivity analysis; alternatively, that only objec-
    tively reasonable reliance, not subjective reliance, is
    required).
    There are several hallmarks of retroactivity present here
    that demonstrate that application of the 90/180-day rule to
    Garcia-Ramirez upsets settled expectations without notice.
    First, “[t]here is a clear difference, for the purposes of retroac-
    tivity analysis, between facing possible deportation and facing
    certain deportation.” St. 
    Cyr, 533 U.S. at 325
    . By pleading
    guilty to the charged offense, St. Cyr risked eventual deporta-
    tion and denial of § 212(c) relief. The Supreme Court
    explained that turning the possibility of deportation into a cer-
    tainty would have “a severe retroactive” effect. 
    Id. Similarly, by
    leaving the country for five months, Garcia-Ramirez risked
    eventual deportation based on a later determination that her
    absence was not “brief, casual, and innocent.” Applying
    IIRIRA now to her past conduct, however, makes her poten-
    tial ineligibility for suspension of deportation absolute. Of
    course, Garcia-Ramirez had little accrued time when she took
    her trip to Mexico in 1989. But however brief, that accrued
    time has turned out to be vital to her ability to satisfy the con-
    tinuous physical presence requirements.
    Second, there is a significant difference between a statute
    that extends the time required to qualify for possible relief
    from removal — extending the duration from seven to 10
    GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES                   11665
    years — and one that reaches back to prior conduct and auto-
    matically subtracts it from one’s accrued continuous presence.
    Thus, applying the presumption against retroactivity here
    would in no way conflict with our holding in Jimenez-Angeles
    v. Ashcroft, 
    291 F.3d 594
    (9th Cir. 2002), that IIRIRA’s new
    10-year rule can be applied to petitioners who were present in
    the United States before its enactment. Jimenez-Angeles did
    not forfeit any part of her accumulated time — or suffer any
    consequences she could have avoided by changing her prior
    actions once her continuous presence clock began running had
    she known the requisite time would be extended to 10 years.
    A person in Garcia-Ramirez’s situation, on the other hand,
    could, with notice, simply have remained within the bounds
    of the 90/180-day parameters of the new law.
    Third, considerations of reasonable reliance and fair notice
    counsel against the application of § 1229b(d)(2) to Garcia-
    Ramirez. Garcia-Ramirez’s “settled expectations must have
    been shaped by the then-current legal landscape.” Velasco-
    
    Medina, 305 F.3d at 849
    ; see also 
    Kankamalage, 335 F.3d at 863
    . When the “relevant past event” occurred, namely Garcia-
    Ramirez’s decision to leave the United States in 1989 for
    more than 90 days, she could reasonably have relied on exist-
    ing law to conclude that her departure would not necessarily
    restart the clock on a bid to establish continuous physical
    presence in the United States. 
    Landgraf, 511 U.S. at 270
    . By
    contrast, Jimenez-Angeles had no basis in law for believing
    that her relevant past event — turning herself in before
    IIRIRA’s effective date — would cause the INS to place her
    into deportation proceedings before IIRIRA’s effective date
    or under pre-IIRIRA law. See 
    Jimenez-Angeles, 291 F.3d at 602
    ; see also Lopez-Urenda v. Ashcroft, 
    345 F.3d 788
    , 793
    (9th Cir. 2003); Vasquez-Zavala v. Ashcroft, 
    324 F.3d 1105
    ,
    1107 08 (9th Cir. 2003).2 Far from relying on the mere hope
    2
    We have subsequently relied on this aspect of Jimenez-Angeles in con-
    cluding that two aliens who filed asylum applications on March 10, 1997
    11666               GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES
    of beneficence by the INS, in 1989 aliens such as Garcia-
    Ramirez had statutory assurance about how their temporary
    departures would be evaluated. See 8 U.S.C. § 1254(b)(2)
    (1995); 
    Chang, 327 F.3d at 920
    n.8.
    As in St. Cyr, Chang and Kankamalage, a finding of imper-
    missible retroactivity here would not depend on Garcia-
    Ramirez showing that she actually, subjectively relied on 8
    U.S.C. § 1254(b)(2) when she departed the United States. See
    St. 
    Cyr, 533 U.S. at 322-25
    (presuming a quid pro quo with-
    out proof of actual reliance); see also 
    Olatunji, 387 F.3d at 393
    (“St. Cyr did not purport to add a subjective reliance
    requirement; rather it applied Landgraf to a set of facts that
    indicated ‘an obvious and severe retroactive effect.’ ” (citing
    St. 
    Cyr, 533 U.S. at 325
    ) (emphasis added)); 
    Ponnapula, 373 F.3d at 491
    (“The Supreme Court has never required actual
    reliance or evidence thereof in the Landgraf line of cases, and
    has in fact assiduously eschewed an actual reliance require-
    ment.”). Rather, given the statutory structure in 1989 — in
    which temporary absences were assessed under a judgmental,
    discretionary standard — we would not presume that Garcia-
    Ramirez’s decision to remain in Mexico for more than 90
    days would have been the same had § 1229b(d)(2)’s
    90/180-day absolute limitation been on the books instead.
    — shortly before IIRIRA went into effect on April 1, 1997 — had no set-
    tled expectations that they would be subject to deportation proceedings
    under pre-IIRIRA law rather than removal proceedings under IIRIRA. See
    
    Vasquez-Zalava, 324 F.3d at 1108
    . IIRIRA was not impermissibly retroac-
    tive as applied to these asylum applicants because, as was the case when
    Jimenez-Angeles turned herself in, “any expectation that an INS action
    would thereafter commence could not support a sufficient expectation as
    to when it would commence.” 
    Id. (emphasis in
    original); see also Lopez-
    
    Urenda, 345 F.3d at 794
    (extending Vasquez-Zalava’s holding to aliens
    who filed asylum applications before IIRIRA’s passage on September 30,
    1996, because even assuming their asylum applications would be denied,
    the applicants “did not have settled expectations as to when proceedings
    against them would commence”) (emphasis in original).
    GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES                      11667
    We would not dispense with the requirement of reasonable
    reliance. We simply find it to be objectively reasonable that
    an alien like Garcia-Ramirez, contemplating a trip outside the
    United States in 1989, could reasonably rely on the then-
    applicable legal standard not later being converted to one that
    automatically restarted the clock on her continuous presence
    because she exceeded the 90-day limit — a limit she could
    have stayed within had that been the rule at the time. There-
    fore, applying § 1229b(d)(2) to her 1989 departure imper-
    missibly attaches new legal consequences that did not exist
    before IIRIRA. See 
    Landgraf, 511 U.S. at 270
    .
    We agree with Judge Gould that Congress retains its super-
    ordinate role in formulating and reformulating our immigra-
    tion laws. See Judge Gould concurrence at 11679. But it is
    settled law that in doing so, Congress must express its intent
    clearly. See, e.g., St. 
    Cyr, 533 U.S. at 316
    .3 Congress has not
    done so with respect to applying the new 90/180-day rule to
    trips taken before IIRIRA’s passage, and Garcia-Ramirez has
    demonstrated objectively reasonable reliance on the prior law.
    But for Mendiola-Sanchez, we would apply the “deeply root-
    ed” presumption against retroactivity in favor of Garcia-
    Ramirez (and the Mendiolas). See 
    Landgraf, 511 U.S. at 265
    .
    3
    Judge Gould points to the REAL ID Act as an example of Congress
    implementing immigration law reform. See Judge Gould concurrence at
    11680 n.7. The REAL ID Act illustrates our very point, because it con-
    tains express provisions instructing that certain changes in the law should
    be applied retrospectively and others only prospectively. See REAL ID
    Act, Pub. L. 109-13, 119 Stat. 231. Where such express instruction exists,
    we can be confident that Congress has weighed the costs and benefits of
    retroactive application of the new laws and has considered the potential
    hardships imposed on individuals who took actions under the old law.
    Absent such evidence that Congress has weighed and considered the
    effects of its new legislation on prior actions, we would not upset the set-
    tled expectations of petitioners like Garcia-Ramirez who took trips under
    the old legal landscape.
    11668                GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES
    GOULD, Circuit Judge, concurring:
    Judge Fisher, in his separate concurrence, states that he “re-
    luctantly” agrees that our precedent governing similar claims
    under the transitional rules of IIRIRA requires that Garcia-
    Ramirez’s petition be denied. See Mendiola-Sanchez v. Ash-
    croft, 
    381 F.3d 937
    (9th Cir. 2004) and Ram v. INS, 
    243 F.3d 510
    (9th Cir. 2001). My able colleague writes separately to
    explain his further view that, were he reviewing Garcia-
    Ramirez’s petition “on a blank slate,” he would proceed to the
    second step of the Landgraf retroactivity analysis1 and con-
    clude that the petition should be granted. I write separately, in
    turn, with my responsive views, as I conclude differently that,
    if we were called upon to apply Landgraf’s second step, the
    application of the 90/180-day rule to Garcia-Ramirez would
    not result in an impermissibly retroactive effect under the
    Supreme Court’s precedent.
    I
    A new statute does not produce an impermissibly retroac-
    tive effect “merely because it is applied in a case arising from
    conduct antedating the statute’s enactment, or upsets expecta-
    tions based in prior law.” 
    Landgraf, 511 U.S. at 269
    (internal
    citation omitted). Rather, the question of whether constitu-
    tionally impermissible consequences result from a statute’s
    1
    In St. Cyr, the Supreme Court affirmed and reiterated the two-part
    framework for addressing potentially retroactive statutes that was estab-
    lished in Landgraf v. USI Film Products, 
    511 U.S. 244
    , 280 (1994).
    Applying the Landgraf test, a court must first ask “whether Congress has
    directed with the requisite clarity that the law be applied retrospectively.”
    St. 
    Cyr, 533 U.S. at 316
    ; see also 
    Landgraf, 511 U.S. at 280
    (holding that
    Congress must “expressly prescribe[ ] the statute’s proper reach”). If the
    statutory language does not meet this standard, our analysis must proceed
    to Landgraf’s second prong, asking whether the application of the statute
    “produces an impermissible retroactive effect.” St. 
    Cyr, 533 U.S. at 320
    .
    In our per curiam opinion, we conclude our Landgraf analysis at step one,
    holding that our prior circuit law compels the conclusion that Congress
    intended IIRIRA’s 90/180-day rule to apply retroactively.
    GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES               11669
    retrospective application is a “commonsense, functional judg-
    ment . . . guided by ‘familiar considerations of fair notice, rea-
    sonable reliance, and settled expectations.’ ” Martin v. Hadix,
    
    527 U.S. 343
    , 357-58 (1999) (quoting 
    Landgraf, 511 U.S. at 270
    ). “A statute has retroactive effect when it takes away or
    impairs vested rights acquired under existing laws, or creates
    a new obligation, imposes a new duty, or attaches a new dis-
    ability, in respect to transactions or considerations already
    past.” St. 
    Cyr, 533 U.S. at 321
    (internal quotation marks omit-
    ted). However, the “application of new statutes passed after
    the events in suit is unquestionably proper in many situa-
    tions.” 
    Landgraf, 511 U.S. at 273
    . St. Cyr is the Supreme
    Court’s most recent pronouncement on Landgraf’s retroactiv-
    ity analysis in the immigration context, and we must look to
    it to guide our own review. See Agostini v. Felton, 
    521 U.S. 203
    , 237 (1997) (instructing lower courts to apply the Court’s
    most direct precedent—clearly St. Cyr in this case—when
    looking for guidance and controlling authority). I begin by
    reviewing St. Cyr in some detail.
    A
    Enrico St. Cyr was a lawful permanent resident alien who
    pled guilty to an aggravated felony charge. St. 
    Cyr, 533 U.S. at 293
    . At the time of his guilty plea, St. Cyr’s conviction ren-
    dered him deportable; however, he was then still eligible for
    a discretionary waiver of deportation that was available for
    permanent resident aliens pursuant to INA § 212(c). 
    Id. IIRIRA repealed
    the Attorney General’s discretion to waive
    deportation under § 212(c), replacing it in relevant part with
    8 U.S.C. § 1229b(a)(3), which excluded anyone convicted of
    an aggravated felony from the relief of cancellation of
    removal. 
    Id. at 297.
    Because his removal proceedings were
    not commenced until after IIRIRA’s effective date, St. Cyr
    could no longer avail himself on the possibility of discretion-
    ary relief. The Court granted certiorari on St. Cyr’s habeas
    appeal, to decide, inter alia, “whether depriving removable
    aliens of consideration for § 212(c) relief produces an imper-
    11670             GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES
    missible retroactive effect for aliens who, like [St. Cyr], were
    convicted pursuant to a plea agreement at a time when their
    plea would not have rendered them ineligible for § 212(c)
    relief.” 
    Id. at 320.
    Proceeding under the second prong of the Landgraf analy-
    sis, the Court held that applying the repeal of § 212(c) to
    aliens “who entered into plea agreements with the expectation
    that they would be eligible for [ ] relief clearly ‘attaches a new
    disability, in respect to transactions or considerations already
    past.’ ” 
    Id. at 321
    . (quoting 
    Landgraf, 511 U.S. at 269
    )
    (emphasis added). Central to the Court’s conclusion was the
    alien’s “reasonable reliance” on the possibility of discretion-
    ary relief in deciding to waive his right to a trial and enter into
    the plea agreement:
    Plea agreements involve a quid pro quo between a
    criminal defendant and the government. In exchange
    for some perceived benefit, defendants waive several
    of their constitutional rights (including the right to a
    trial) and grant the government numerous tangible
    benefits, such as promptly imposed punishment
    without the expenditure of prosecutorial resources.
    There can be little doubt that, as a general matter,
    alien defendants considering whether to enter into a
    plea agreement are acutely aware of the immigration
    consequences of their convictions. Given the fre-
    quency with which § 212(c) relief was granted in the
    years leading up to AEDPA and IIRIRA, preserving
    the possibility of such relief would have been one of
    the principal benefits sought by defendants deciding
    whether to accept a plea offer or instead to proceed
    to trial.
    St. 
    Cyr, 533 U.S. at 321
    -23 (internal quotation marks, foot-
    notes, and citations omitted). The Court concluded that
    because the respondent “almost certainly relied upon” the
    likelihood of receiving § 212(c) relief “in deciding whether to
    GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES                11671
    forgo [his] right to a trial, the elimination of [that possibility]
    by IIRIRA ha[d] an obvious and severe retroactive effect.” 
    Id. at 325.
    B
    Judge Fisher in his separate concurrence acknowledges that
    Garcia-Ramirez lacks the quid pro quo that was central to the
    Court’s analysis in St. Cyr. Judge Fisher concurrence at
    11662. He does not view this omission as fatal to his analysis,
    however, contending that reasonable reliance is not the sine
    qua non for a holding of impermissible retroactive effect, and
    no doubt taking solace that Landgraf did not “define the outer
    limit of impermissible retroactivity.” Hughes Aircraft Co. v.
    United States, 
    520 U.S. 939
    , 947 (1997)).
    I agree that the Supreme Court has not heretofore made any
    one factor of our retroactivity analysis dispositive. However,
    I would not stray from the Court’s instructive example in the
    immigration context. See 
    Agostini, 521 U.S. at 237
    . St. Cyr
    exchanged his “vested” legal right to trial relying on the
    assumption that it would not make him automatically deport-
    able. This reliance was reasonable given the significant per-
    centage of resident aliens granted § 212(c) relief at the time.
    See St. 
    Cyr, 533 U.S. at 322-23
    . By entering into a plea agree-
    ment, St. Cyr in turn “grant[ed] the government numerous
    ‘tangible benefits, such as promptly imposed punishment
    without the expenditure of prosecutorial resources.’ ” 
    Id. at 322
    (quoting Newton v. Rumery, 
    480 U.S. 386
    , 393 n.3
    (1987)).
    Garcia-Ramirez, on the other hand, petitioned our court
    hoping for the possibility to avail herself of a five-month trip
    she took after having been in the country illegally for less
    than a year, and introduced no evidence whatsoever that she
    made her trip with any expectation about immigration law
    consequence. Unlike St. Cyr, Garcia-Ramirez did not bargain
    away any existing legal right in reliance on the pre-IIRIRA
    11672                GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES
    discretionary relief standard. In fact, in view of the absence of
    contrary evidence in the record, it seems very unlikely that,
    when she went to Mexico for five months, she was even con-
    scious of the relief of suspension of deportation or its continu-
    ous physical presence requirement, to say nothing of its
    exception for “brief, casual, and innocent” trips. Even more
    unlikely is the possibility that she in any way tailored her trip
    to conform with that standard. The differences between St.
    Cyr’s predicament and Garcia-Ramirez’s status are telling and
    worth repeating: Unlike St. Cyr, Garcia-Ramirez had no
    “vested right” that she gave up or bargained away; she had no
    “reasonable reliance” on the law as it was before IIRIRA
    implemented Congress’s reforms; and she had no “settled
    expectations” of the effect of her action in departing the
    United States. See St. 
    Cyr, 533 U.S. at 321
    .2
    Downplaying the importance of reasonable reliance and
    vested rights to the St. Cyr analysis, my colleague Judge
    Fisher notes that the Court in its St. Cyr opinion “presume[d]”
    St. Cyr’s quid pro quo. Judge Fisher concurrence at 11662,
    11666. He thus concludes that there is no need to address the
    fact that there is no evidence how Garcia-Ramirez could have
    reasonably relied on or even knew about pre-IIRIRA law.
    Instead, in his view, we can simply assume and impute rea-
    2
    Moreover, the nature of the pre-IIRIRA “brief, casual, and innocent”
    standard belies the conclusion that Garcia-Ramirez or aliens in a similar
    circumstance could have reasonably relied on it, in connection with a five-
    month sojourn outside of the United States. The “brief, casual, and inno-
    cent” standard is vague and ambiguous, and Garcia-Ramirez’s five-month
    excursion might not qualify as “brief, casual, and innocent” enough. If the
    pre-IIRIRA standard had permitted eligibility for suspension of deporta-
    tion with departures of a longer duration than the 90/180 rule, and if a per-
    son could have relied objectively on a precise guideline for permissible
    absence, perhaps a better case could be made that aliens could objectively
    and reasonably rely on it in exiting and then reentering the country in
    accord with that time frame. In light of the ambiguity of the prior standard,
    and the apparent contrast of five months with its “brief” element, as it was
    written, any purported reliance—for a trip of five months—cannot prop-
    erly be described as objectively “reasonable.”
    GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES               11673
    sonable reliance to Garcia-Ramirez from nothing more than
    the “statutory structure in 1989.” See Judge Fisher concur-
    rence at 11666. I disagree.
    In the case of St. Cyr, the reasonable reliance factor could
    be presumed by the Court because the evidence there made
    reliance both apparent and objectively reasonable. See St. 
    Cyr, 533 U.S. at 322
    (“There can be little doubt that, as a general
    matter, alien defendants considering whether to enter into a
    plea agreement are acutely aware of the immigration conse-
    quences of their convictions.”); 
    id. (“Preserving the
    client’s
    right to remain in the United States may be more important
    to the client than any potential jail sentence.”); 
    id. at 322
    n.48
    (citing state laws requiring trial judges to advise defendants of
    the immigration consequences of their plea agreements); 
    id. at 323
    n.50 (citing the Amicus Brief of the National Association
    of Criminal Defense Lawyers for the conclusion that “compe-
    tent defense counsel, following the advice of numerous prac-
    tice guides, would have advised St. Cyr concerning the
    provision’s importance”); 
    id. at 325
    (“Prior to AEDPA and
    IIRIRA, aliens like St. Cyr had a significant likelihood of
    receiving § 212(c) relief.”).
    In sharp contrast, the record in this case is void of any evi-
    dence that Garcia-Ramirez even knew of the “brief, casual,
    and innocent” standard, to say nothing of why it is a reason-
    able assumption that she could have timed her trip purposely
    to avail herself of it. But there is no question that reasonable
    reliance, as illustrated in St. Cyr’s plea bargain, was central
    to the Court’s retroactivity analysis. E.g., at 323 (“Given the
    frequency with which § 212(c) relief was granted in the years
    leading up to AEDPA and IIRIRA, preserving the possibility
    of relief would have been one of the principal benefits St. Cyr
    sought.”) (footnote omitted). Faced with this predicament and
    with no evidence of reasonable reliance in sight, my able col-
    league makes two arguments. First, he points out that subjec-
    tive actual reliance is not needed, and that Garcia-Ramirez’s
    case shows an objectively reasonable reliance. But the idea
    11674                GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES
    that reliance need not be an actual subjective reliance is noth-
    ing new, and does not address what evidence is necessary to
    show reasonableness. The Court in St. Cyr considered a quid
    pro quo to be an example of reasonable, not actual or subjec-
    tive, reliance, presuming St. Cyr’s reliance because of the
    general course of immigrant reliance on the possibility of INA
    § 212(c) discretionary relief when guilty pleas were entered.
    By contrast, here, there is no suggestion that illegal immi-
    grants generally display any reliance on the “brief, casual, and
    innocent” standard in leaving the country for many months
    before reentry in illegal status.3
    Second, Judge Fisher in his separate concurrence concludes
    that reasonable reliance can be assumed for Garcia-Ramirez
    (and thus in every similar case) from the general “old legal
    landscape” or “statutory structure in 1989.” Judge Fisher con-
    currence 11667 & n.3. But this assumption effectively casts
    out reasonable reliance from our retroactivity assessment, dis-
    regarding the Court’s sensible instruction otherwise: “As we
    have repeatedly counseled, the judgment whether a particular
    statute acts retroactively should be informed and guided by
    familiar considerations of fair notice, reasonable reliance,
    and settled expectations.” St. 
    Cyr, 533 U.S. at 321
    (internal
    quotation marks omitted) (emphasis added). My colleague’s
    test would misapply the second step of the Court’s seminal
    Landgraf analysis, making this second step a formality of
    analysis that inescapably will lead to a jurisprudential dead-
    end whenever Congress alters the “statutory structure.” Under
    that form of analysis, were it adopted, the presumption against
    retroactive legislation likely would be applied whenever Con-
    gress has not explicitly declared retroactivity, satisfying the
    3
    My colleague also relies on the Court’s phrase in St. Cyr that “[t]here
    is a clear difference, for the purposes of retroactivity analysis, between
    facing possible deportation and facing certain deportation.” Judge Fisher
    concurrence at 11661, 11664 (quoting St. 
    Cyr, 533 U.S. at 325
    ). In my
    view, this phrase cannot be divorced from its context in St. Cyr, where it
    was tied to St. Cyr’s reasonable reliance on the availability of discretion-
    ary relief from deportation when he pled guilty.
    GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES              11675
    first prong of the Landgraf test. The line of analysis proposed
    by my colleague would go far to reduce Landgraf to a one-
    step analysis.
    C
    Recognizing that St. Cyr cannot support his position that
    this case is a “paradigm instance” of impermissible retroactiv-
    ity, my colleague looks for help from our prior precedent.
    Judge Fisher concurrence at 5, 7-8 (citing Kankamalage v.
    INS, 
    335 F.3d 858
    , 863 (9th Cir. 2003), and United States v.
    Velasco-Medina, 
    305 F.3d 839
    , 849-50 (9th Cir. 2002)). But
    these cases do not assist in de-emphasizing the importance the
    Supreme Court in St. Cyr placed on reasonable reliance, set-
    tled expectations, and vested interests, as illustrated through
    the quid quo pro of a plea bargain. In fact, both Kankamalage
    and Velasco-Medina hinge on the question of whether reli-
    ance on a pre-IIRIRA guilty plea was reasonable and created
    settled expectations.
    Jayantha Kankamalage was an alien who, like St. Cyr, pled
    guilty to a conviction that would not have automatically dis-
    qualified him for relief from deporation under pre-IIRIRA
    law. 
    Kankamalage, 335 F.3d at 860
    . We reiterated the impor-
    tance of reasonable reliance: “[t]here can be little doubt that
    . . . alien defendants considering whether to enter into a plea
    agreement are acutely aware of the immigration consequences
    of their convictions.” 
    Id. at 863
    (quoting St. 
    Cyr, 533 U.S. at 322
    ) (alteration in the original). Because the current regula-
    tions would automatically disqualify Kankamalage from
    relief, we viewed the case as “like St. Cyr,” concluding that
    the petitioner, again, based on the quid pro quo of his guilty
    plea, had legitimate settled expectations, and had reasonably
    relied on pre-IIRIRA law. 
    Id. We therefore
    held that the regu-
    lation as applied to the petitioner was impermissibly retroac-
    tive. 
    Id. at 864.
    Pedro Velasco-Medina also pled guilty under pre-IIRIRA
    law and the statutory amendments retroactively made him
    11676               GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES
    ineligible for cancellation of removal. 
    Velasco-Medina, 305 F.3d at 843-44
    . However, in that case, we distinguished St.
    Cyr and concluded that, because the passage of AEDPA had
    already foreclosed any possibility of § 212(c) relief at the time
    Velasco-Medina entered his guilty plea, the petitioner, unlike
    St. Cyr, never possessed
    vested rights acquired under existing laws. . . . Thus,
    Velasco-Medina could not have developed the sort
    of settled expectations concerning § 212(c) relief
    that informed St. Cyr’s plea bargain and that ani-
    mated the St. Cyr decision.
    ....
    . . . To the extent he anticipated the continued
    availability of 212(c) relief after his guilty plea, his
    expectations were neither reasonable nor settled
    under St. Cyr.
    
    Id. at 849,
    850 (internal quotation marks and citations omit-
    ted). Far from minimizing the importance of St. Cyr’s quid
    pro quo, both Kankamalage and Velasco-Medina turn on
    whether an alien’s reliance and expectations stemming from
    a guilty plea were settled and reasonable. These cases mention
    the “legal landscape” in discussing the effect of plea bargains,
    but Kankamalage and Velasco-Medina cannot correctly be
    urged to support making a change of the “legal landscape”—
    or the “statutory structure” as Judge Fisher also puts it—a test
    unto itself.4
    4
    A step two Landgraf analysis in Garcia-Ramirez’s case would be akin
    to our analysis in Jimenez-Angeles v. Ashcroft, 
    291 F.3d 594
    (9th Cir.
    2002). Jimenez-Angeles dealt with almost the exact same situation we face
    here: the retroactive application of the continuous presence requirement
    for cancellation of removal, 8 U.S.C. § 1229b(d). Like Garcia-Ramirez,
    Alma Delia Jimenez-Angeles had no vested rights under pre-IIRIRA law,
    expressed through a plea bargain or otherwise, but merely hoped to be
    GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES                      11677
    Nor can my colleague properly find support for his analysis
    in extra-circuit case law. He cites two cases, from the Third
    and Fourth Circuits respectively, which did not emphasize the
    importance of reasonable reliance. Judge Fisher concurrence
    at 11663-64 (citing cases). While no court has addressed the
    exact question before us, my canvass of our sister circuits’
    precedents addressing the retrospective application of other
    IIRIRA provisions reveals that the great weight of authority
    places a due emphasis on reliance. Far from minimizing reli-
    ance, courts analyzing the retroactivity of IIRIRA provisions
    under Landgraf’s second prong routinely and properly stress
    the significance of reliance under St. Cyr. See, e.g., Rankine
    v. Reno, 
    319 F.3d 93
    , 102 (2d Cir. 2003) (“[T]he issue of reli-
    ance has played a central role in the Supreme Court’s and the
    circuit courts’ reasoning with respect to the retroactivity of
    IIRIRA and AEDPA.”); Chambers v. Reno, 
    307 F.3d 284
    ,
    289-90 (4th Cir. 2002) (recognizing that reliance was the “key
    event” in St. Cyr’s retroactivity analysis).5
    processed under pre-IIRIRA suspension of deportation instead of cancella-
    tion of removal because she had fulfilled the temporal presence require-
    ment for the former but not the latter. 
    Jimenez-Angeles, 291 F.3d at 597
    .
    Analyzing the retroactivity claim under step two of Landgraf, we held that
    her “expectation” or “hope” that she could avail herself of suspension of
    deportation “was not equivalent to the settled expectation St. Cyr gained
    by entering into his plea bargain.” 
    Id. at 602
    (“A plea bargain is a formal
    exchange in which each side consensually gives, and gets, something of
    value. In Jimenez-Angeles’ case, there was no such exchange.”). In con-
    trast to a formal plea bargain or any other evidence of reasonable reliance
    and settled expectations, Garcia-Ramirez, like Jimenez-Angeles, “gave up
    only her ability to continue living illegally and undetected in the United
    States.” 
    Id. 5 Most
    circuits have declined to find reasonable reliance and impermissi-
    ble retroactive effect beyond the plea agreement context of St. Cyr. The
    provision most frequently litigated has been IIRIRA’s repeal of INA
    § 212(c), the same provision at issue in St. Cyr. Most courts have held
    IIRIRA not impermissibly retroactive as applied to petitioners who did not
    enter a plea agreement like St. Cyr because, without the quid pro quo of
    the plea agreement, no evidence exists from which to show a petitioner’s
    11678                GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES
    Judge Fisher’s separate concurrence does not disclose a
    case, in our circuit or any other, in which a federal court has
    determined that there was reasonable reliance in the manner
    in which he would determine reliance, devoid of evidence or
    persuasive rationale why reliance, whether subjectively or
    objectively grounded, should be reasonably presumed for a
    class of persons situated similarly to the petitioner, save his
    general argument about change in the “statutory structure.”6
    reasonable reliance on the pre-IIRIRA provision. See, e.g., Swaby v. Ash-
    croft, 
    357 F.3d 156
    , 161-62 (2d Cir. 2004) (holding that IIRIRA’s repeal
    of INA § 212(c) was not impermissibly retroactive because, unlike St.
    Cyr, the petitioner chose to proceed to trial instead of agreeing to a plea
    and therefore “did not detrimentally rely on the availability of § 212(c)
    relief”); Montenegro v. Ashcroft, 
    355 F.3d 1035
    , 1037 (7th Cir. 2004) (per
    curiam) (holding that IIRIRA’s repeal of INA § 212(c) relief not imper-
    missibly retroactive as applied to petitioners who “did not abandon rights
    or admit guilt in reliance on continued eligibility for § 212(c) relief”);
    
    Rankine, 319 F.3d at 100
    (same); Dias v. INS, 
    311 F.3d 456
    , 458 (1st Cir.
    2002) (holding that IIRIRA’s repeal of § 212(c) was not impermissibly
    retroactive to petitioners who did not rely on pre-IIRIRA law because the
    “retroactivity analysis must include an examination of reliance”) (citing
    Mattis v. Reno, 
    212 F.3d 31
    (1st Cir. 2000)); Brooks v. Ashcroft, 
    283 F.3d 1268
    , 1274 (11th Cir. 2002) (holding that the repeal of § 212(c) was not
    impermissibly retroactive because, unlike St. Cyr, petitioner “did not so
    choose to rely upon the agreed upon terms of a plea” and because his case
    did not present “the same concerns of quid pro quo, benefit for an
    exchange, between a defendant and the government”).
    Courts have declined to extend St. Cyr to other provisions of IIRIRA
    as well. See, e.g., Uspango v. Ashcroft, 
    289 F.3d 226
    , 230 (3d Cir. 2002)
    (holding that the application of cancellation of removal’s ten-year pres-
    ence requirement to the petitioner was not impermissibly retroactive
    because “[u]nlike the situation in St. Cyr, [the petitioner] can demonstrate
    no detrimental reliance on pre-[IIRIRA] law” and “[the petitioner] gave up
    no rights . . . nor did [the government] receive any benefits from [the peti-
    tioner’s action]”); Velasquez-Gabriel v. Crocetti, 
    263 F.3d 102
    , 108-09
    (4th Cir. 2001) (holding that IIRIRA § 241(a), requiring removal of aliens
    previously ordered removed, did not operate in an impermissibly retroac-
    tive manner because, unlike St. Cyr, the petitioner could not show “a rea-
    sonable likelihood of success under pre-IIRIRA law nor a detrimental
    reliance on pre-IIRIRA law”).
    6
    As explained above, the only cases that my colleague cites relying on
    language equivalent to its “statutory structure” language is the “legal land-
    GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES                      11679
    Nor does my able colleague point to any other case holding
    § 1229b(d)(2) or a comparable temporal provision of IIRIRA
    impermissibly retroactive.
    II
    In almost any instance of immigration law reform, it will
    be the case that a multitude of illegal aliens were residing
    within the United States and its “legal landscape” or “statu-
    tory structure” when Congress acted to change the immigra-
    tion law. It perhaps should not need repeating that the
    Constitution gives the superordinate role to Congress, and not
    to the federal courts, in regulating the flow and content of
    immigration to the United States. The world changes rapidly,
    and illegal immigration may pose threats or disadvantage to
    the United States’ security, economy, and well-being. Con-
    gress needs flexibility in fine-tuning our immigration laws. St.
    Cyr carves out an exceptional area where reasonable reliance
    constrains the ability of Congress to alter immigration law.
    But nothing in St. Cyr or its immigration law progeny in the
    federal courts makes welcome a far-reaching pronouncement
    that impermissible retroactivity will likely follow from
    change to the “statutory structure.” Such a rationale would
    restrict the ability of Congress to implement law reform, in
    the absence of explicit declarations of retroactivity, and would
    scape” language of 
    Velasco-Medina, 305 F.3d at 849
    , and 
    Kankamalage, 335 F.3d at 863
    . But neither of those cases in fact relies upon such a ratio-
    nale, as both hinge upon the evidence of reasonable reliance (or lack
    thereof) arising from a plea agreement’s quid pro quo, just as in St. Cyr.
    
    Kankamalage, 335 F.3d at 863
    -64; 
    Velasco-Medina, 305 F.3d at 850
    .
    More recently, in Kelava v. Gonzales, we held that IIRIRA’s repeal of
    INA § 212(c) is not impermissibly retroactive as applied to an alien who
    engaged in a terrorist activity that occurred prior to IIRIRA’s enactment.
    
    410 F.3d 625
    , 630 (9th Cir. 2005). As relevant here, in Kelava we reiter-
    ated the importance of a plea showing reasonable reliance in applying the
    retroactivity analysis of St. Cyr: “We have cabined St. Cyr to the plea con-
    text, because of the alien’s reliance on existing law in that situation.” 
    Id. at 629.
    11680                GARCIA-RAMIREZ v. GONZALES
    have unforseen negative consequences for the immigration
    laws.7
    Mendiola-Sanchez supports our denial of the petition with-
    out reaching Landgraf’s second step. However, were we to
    reach the second step, I would still deny the petition because
    the application of the 90/180-day rule would not have an “im-
    permissible retroactive effect.”
    7
    For example, during the pendency of our deliberations on this matter
    Congress enacted the REAL ID Act of 2005, Pub. L. 109-13, 119 Stat.
    231. The REAL ID Act alters several provisions of the Immigration and
    Nationality Act, amending the INA provisions governing our judicial
    review as well as amending certain standards governing asylum and other
    forms of relief from removal, including burdens of proof, testimonial cor-
    roboration, credibility determinations, and the definition of terrorist orga-
    nizations and terrorist related activities. See, e.g., 8 U.S.C. § 1252(a) as
    amended by § 106(a) of the REAL ID Act, 119 Stat. 305, 310; 8 U.S.C.
    § 1158(b) as amended by § 101(a)(3), (c), and (d)(2) of the REAL ID Act,
    119 Stat. 302, 303; 8 U.S.C. § 1182(a)(3)(B) as amended by § 103 of the
    REAL ID Act, 119 Stat. 306-309.
    

Document Info

Docket Number: 02-73543

Filed Date: 8/26/2005

Precedential Status: Precedential

Modified Date: 10/13/2015

Authorities (25)

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Francisco Vasquez-Zavala Cristina Vasquez-Patino v. John D. ... , 324 F.3d 1105 ( 2003 )

Mattis v. Reno , 212 F.3d 31 ( 2000 )

Immigration & Naturalization Service v. St. Cyr , 121 S. Ct. 2271 ( 2001 )

Agostini v. Felton , 117 S. Ct. 1997 ( 1997 )

hopeton-anthony-rankine-paul-r-lawrence-v-janet-reno-attorney-general , 319 F.3d 93 ( 2003 )

Marcelino Montenegro v. John D. Ashcroft, Attorney General ... , 355 F.3d 1035 ( 2004 )

Salvador Castrejon-Garcia v. Immigration & Naturalization ... , 60 F.3d 1359 ( 1995 )

United States v. Pedro Velasco-Medina , 305 F.3d 839 ( 2002 )

Bozo Kelava v. Alberto R. Gonzales, Attorney General , 410 F.3d 625 ( 2005 )

Javier Lopez-Urenda v. John Ashcroft, Attorney General , 345 F.3d 788 ( 2003 )

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francisco-velasquez-gabriel-v-louis-d-crocetti-jr-district-director , 263 F.3d 102 ( 2001 )

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Clifford K. Olatunji v. John Ashcroft, Attorney General of ... , 387 F.3d 383 ( 2004 )

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