United States v. Steven Grovo , 826 F.3d 1207 ( 2016 )


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  •                   FOR PUBLICATION
    UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
    FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT
    UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,                No. 15-30016
    Plaintiff-Appellee,
    D.C. No.
    v.                  9:13-cr-00030-DWM-13
    STEVEN GROVO,
    Defendant-Appellant.
    UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,                No. 15-30027
    Plaintiff-Appellee,
    D.C. No.
    v.                  9:13-cr-00030-DWM-12
    JOSHUA PETERSEN,
    Defendant-Appellant.               OPINION
    Appeal from the United States District Court
    for the District of Montana
    Donald W. Molloy, District Judge, Presiding
    Argued and Submitted March 9, 2016
    Portland, Oregon
    Filed June 23, 2016
    2                   UNITED STATES V. GROVO
    Before: Raymond C. Fisher and Paul J. Watford, Circuit
    Judges, and Donald E. Walter, District Judge.*
    Opinion by Judge Fisher
    SUMMARY**
    Criminal Law
    The panel affirmed two defendants’ convictions for
    engaging in a child exploitation enterprise under 18 U.S.C.
    § 2252A(g) and conspiracy to advertise child pornography
    under 18 U.S.C. § 2251(d) for their roles in an online bulletin
    board dedicated to discussing and exchanging child
    pornography, vacated the restitution order, and remanded.
    The panel rejected the defendants’ argument that they did
    not act “in concert with three or more other persons” for
    purposes of § 2252A(g), and held that the evidence supports
    their convictions for participating in a child exploitation
    enterprise.
    On a question of first impression in this circuit, the panel
    held that an “advertisement” under § 2251(d) need not
    necessarily be published in the press or broadcast over the
    air, and assuming without deciding that an “advertisement”
    *
    The Honorable Donald E. Walter, Senior United States District Judge
    for the Western District of Louisiana, sitting by designation.
    **
    This summary constitutes no part of the opinion of the court. It has
    been prepared by court staff for the convenience of the reader.
    UNITED STATES V. GROVO                       3
    requires some public component, advertising to a particular
    subset of the public is sufficient to sustain a conviction. The
    panel held that the defendants’ posts, which were shared with
    a closed community of 40 to 45 individuals on the bulletin
    board’s message boards, constitute advertisements under
    § 2251(d), and that the evidence is sufficient to sustain the
    convictions.
    Emphasizing that the district court’s method of
    apportioning loss between the defendants was sound under
    Paroline v. United States, 
    134 S. Ct. 1710
    (2014), the panel
    vacated the restitution order and remanded to allow the
    district court to disaggregate the portion of the victim’s losses
    caused by the original abuse from those attributable to
    continued viewing of her image, consistent with the rule
    announced in United States v. Galan, 
    804 F.3d 1287
    (9th Cir.
    2015).
    COUNSEL
    Stephen R. Hormel (argued), Hormel Law Office, LLC,
    Spokane, Washington, for Defendant-Appellant Steven
    Grovo.
    Elizabeth A. Brandenburg (argued) and Marcia G. Shein, Law
    Firm of Shein & Brandenburg, Decatur, Georgia, for
    Defendant-Appellant Joshua Petersen.
    Cyndee L. Peterson (argued), Assistant United States
    Attorney; Michael W. Cotter, United States Attorney; United
    States Attorney’s Office, Missoula, Montana, for Plaintiff-
    Appellee.
    4                   UNITED STATES V. GROVO
    OPINION
    FISHER, Circuit Judge:
    Steven Grovo, Joshua Petersen and 11 others from around
    the United States were indicted for their roles in Kingdom of
    Future Dreams (KOFD), an online bulletin board dedicated to
    discussing and exchanging child pornography. Although the
    other 11 defendants entered plea agreements in separate
    cases, Grovo and Petersen proceeded to a bench trial on two
    counts: a charge of engaging in a child exploitation enterprise
    under 18 U.S.C. § 2252A(g) and a charge of conspiracy to
    advertise child pornography under 18 U.S.C. § 2251(d).1
    They were convicted on both counts.
    Grovo and Petersen both challenge aspects of their
    convictions, and Grovo challenges his sentence. Only three
    of their grounds for appeal merit discussion here.2 First,
    Grovo and Petersen argue the government failed to prove
    they acted “in concert with three or more other persons” when
    they participated in posting or exchanging child pornography
    on KOFD’s message boards. See § 2252A(g). Second, both
    argue the evidence introduced at trial does not prove they
    knowingly made, printed or published any “advertisement
    seeking or offering . . . to receive, exchange, buy, produce,
    display, distribute, or reproduce” child pornography, see
    § 2251(d)(1), because their posts on KOFD were not
    “advertisements” to the public at large, but were instead
    1
    All statutory citations are to title 18 of the United States Code unless
    otherwise indicated.
    2
    For the reasons stated in a concurrently filed memorandum disposition,
    we reject the defendants’ other arguments.
    UNITED STATES V. GROVO                      5
    visible only to other KOFD members. Finally, Grovo
    challenges the district court’s restitution order, arguing the
    court erred in apportioning restitution.
    We affirm both defendants’ convictions. Because the
    district court did not have the benefit of our decision in
    United States v. Galan, 
    804 F.3d 1287
    (9th Cir. 2015), when
    it crafted the restitution order, however, we vacate that order
    and remand for the district court to disaggregate the losses
    caused by the original sexual abuse of the victim and the
    losses caused by the ongoing distribution and possession of
    her images. See 
    Galan, 804 F.3d at 1291
    .
    I. BACKGROUND
    Grovo’s and Petersen’s convictions arise from their
    involvement in KOFD, an invitation-only online message
    board for sharing child pornography and non-pornographic
    images of children. Individuals could join KOFD only after
    they were referred by an existing member and the site
    administrators and other volunteer staff determined they
    could be trusted. Once members were accepted to the
    message board, they were able to post in various “rooms”
    focusing on particular types of content. Members could share
    files either by posting them directly to a new or existing
    “thread” in a particular room, or, more commonly, by posting
    a preview image that would link other members to a third-
    party file-sharing service where they could view or download
    the image or video.
    The rooms on KOFD were divided into two categories:
    the upper boards and the lower boards. All members of
    KOFD had access to the lower boards, where they could post
    non-nude images of children engaged in lascivious exhibition
    6                UNITED STATES V. GROVO
    of their genitals – for example, posing in sheer or revealing
    underwear – in rooms such as “Princesses 9yo and Under”
    and “Stunning Dolls 10yo to 15yo.” The lower boards also
    contained rooms for members to discuss how to evade law
    enforcement and specific rooms – such as the “Wishing
    Well” and “Wishes” – where members could post requests for
    images or videos from specific child pornography studios or
    depicting particular child models.
    To gain access to the upper boards, members typically
    needed to have a record of posting on the lower boards that
    demonstrated they were “friendly, cooperative members” of
    the site and signaled their interest in more explicit images.
    After a vetting process to determine the member could be
    trusted, a site administrator would grant him access by giving
    him the password to the upper boards, where members could
    post and view fully nude images and videos of children
    engaged in sexually explicit conduct.
    KOFD’s 40 to 45 members were therefore divided into
    different levels that determined their ability to access
    particular content – such as the upper boards – and their
    authority over the workings of KOFD as a whole.
    Administrators had the broadest authority over KOFD’s
    membership and the technical aspects of its management,
    with the ability to admit or suspend members and manage the
    content on the boards. They were assisted by Moderators,
    who had more limited powers but could delete or modify
    objectionable posts by members. Legionaires, who were
    respected members of the board without formal
    administrative authority, rounded out the volunteer “staff” of
    KOFD. Non-staff members were divided into two levels
    based on their ability to access the upper-level content on the
    site. Castle Dwellers, the lowest level of members, were
    UNITED STATES V. GROVO                      7
    limited to the lower section of KOFD. After undergoing the
    vetting process described above, KOFD staff could grant
    members the status of Castle Resident, which permitted them
    access to the upper boards as well.
    At trial, the government introduced extensive evidence of
    the defendants’ participation in KOFD. Grovo, under the
    username “Karomesis,” was actively involved in KOFD as a
    Castle Resident and posted a total of 330 times in rooms on
    both the upper and lower boards. In one instance, he started
    a thread in the upper board which he titled “LEGENDARY
    WIN . . .” and gave the description “my sin . . . my soul . . .
    my Adreana (Supermodels 7-17)”. In it, he posted preview
    images of a prepubescent girl wearing sheer lingerie that
    exposed her genitals. Four KOFD members, including two
    staff members, thanked Grovo for his post. Grovo also
    started a thread in the “Wishing Well” room of the lower
    boards seeking images of a specific model from Magic-
    image.com, a popular child pornography studio, and thanked
    other members who suggested he could join an online group
    to find the images by using a prepaid and untraceable Visa or
    Mastercard. He also started a thread entitled “FULL
    Anonymity” in the lower boards, advising other members on
    how to use public or unsecured wireless internet connections
    to make it harder for law enforcement to identify them. He
    also began another thread alerting KOFD members to a
    similar child exploitation message board whose owner had
    been arrested on charges related to child pornography.
    In addition, the government introduced evidence Grovo
    replied to threads started by other members in both the upper
    and lower boards. In an upper-board thread containing
    images of prepubescent children nude and engaged in
    sexually explicit activities, Grovo wrote “gracias amigo” to
    8                   UNITED STATES V. GROVO
    the thread’s creator and commented on the appearance of the
    models. In a lower-board thread called “Bottom Dwellers –
    For connoisseurs of young female backsides,” Grovo posted
    an image of a prepubescent girl wearing a thong and posing
    on all fours with the camera focused on her buttocks and
    genitals, accompanied by the comment, “another finely
    clefted set of buttocks. I’ve always had a fondness for this
    girls ass, It deserves it’s [sic] own temple IMHO.” Eighteen
    other members commented on the thread and shared images
    or links.
    Petersen, under the username “aqualung,” was a Castle
    Resident and posted 440 times on both the upper and lower
    boards of KOFD. Like Grovo, Petersen both created new
    threads and replied to threads created by other members. For
    example, Petersen created a thread in the upper boards
    entitled “hot LS vid,” referring to the popular child
    pornography producer LS Studios. The thread included a link
    to a video of two nude prepubescent girls engaging in
    sexually explicit conduct. Another thread – which Petersen
    created and named “LS at its best :)” – linked to a
    downloadable file of numerous images of child pornography.3
    Petersen also commented on a thread on the upper boards
    entitled “Oceane Dreams – Sets 1 through 27,” which referred
    to Oceane, a popular underage model, and linked to a third-
    party site where users could download a file containing
    numerous images. Petersen thanked the poster on behalf of
    all the members who downloaded the file without
    3
    In both of these instances, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
    was unable to recover the content from KOFD, but recovered content from
    Petersen’s hard drive with identical file names to the posted content and
    which was consistent with the video and images described in members’
    posts thanking Petersen.
    UNITED STATES V. GROVO                       9
    commenting. Four other members also posted their
    appreciation in the thread.
    Petersen also created threads in the lower boards designed
    to help other KOFD members. In one, he posted a link to a
    search engine that would enable members to “just type in the
    model or the site” they were seeking in order to find images.
    He also created a thread entitled “the basics of surfin safe”
    that advised other members on how to disguise their online
    identities and noted “it takes time and effort but worth it . . .
    time in jail is lots worse.”
    At the close of the government’s case, both Grovo and
    Petersen moved to dismiss the charges against them under
    Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 29, arguing the
    government did not prove they each acted “in concert with
    three or more other persons” to knowingly receive or
    distribute child pornography in a child exploitation enterprise,
    § 2252A(g), or that their posts on KOFD constituted
    “advertisement[s] seeking or offering” child pornography,
    § 2251(d)(1). The district court denied their motions,
    concluding there was “[c]learly” an agreement between three
    or more persons to engage in illegal conduct on KOFD and
    that offering child pornography to the “closed community” of
    KOFD members constituted an “advertisement” under the
    statute.
    The court convicted the defendants on both charges at a
    bench trial. It sentenced Grovo to 360 months in prison and
    Petersen to 240 months. It also considered the factors set
    forth in Paroline v. United States, 
    134 S. Ct. 1710
    (2014), and
    awarded restitution to one victim, holding all those convicted
    jointly and severally liable for $29,859.00. Grovo and
    Petersen both timely appealed.
    10               UNITED STATES V. GROVO
    II. DISCUSSION
    We review de novo the sufficiency of the evidence,
    including questions of statutory interpretation. See United
    States v. Garcia, 
    768 F.3d 822
    , 827 (9th Cir. 2014). In doing
    so, we view the evidence in the light most favorable to the
    prosecution and ask whether any rational trier of fact could
    have found the essential elements of the crime beyond a
    reasonable doubt. See United States v. Nevils, 
    598 F.3d 1158
    ,
    1163–64 (9th Cir. 2010) (en banc). We review the district
    court’s calculation of the amount of a restitution award for
    abuse of discretion. See United States v. Peterson, 
    538 F.3d 1064
    , 1074 (9th Cir. 2008).
    A.
    Both Grovo and Petersen challenge the sufficiency of the
    evidence underlying their convictions for engaging in a child
    exploitation enterprise. To prove those charges, the
    government needed to show that (1) Grovo and Petersen
    knowingly distributed, received or accessed with intent to
    view child pornography “as a part of a series of felony
    violations constituting three or more separate incidents,”
    (2) the incidents “involv[ed] more than one victim” and
    (3) they each “committ[ed] those offenses in concert with
    three or more other persons.” § 2252A(g). Only the third
    element is at issue here.
    1.
    The defendants argue they did not act “in concert with
    three or more other persons” for the purposes of the statute.
    In particular, Grovo contends none of his actions were “in
    concert with” other members of the board because each
    UNITED STATES V. GROVO                     11
    member acted alone and posted at different times. Petersen
    argues that only KOFD’s creators and staff could be guilty of
    engaging in a child exploitation enterprise, and that there was
    insufficient evidence to conclude he had acted in concert with
    that enterprise. Neither argument is persuasive.
    We begin by construing the language of the statute. The
    Supreme Court has recognized that “the plain meaning of the
    phrase ‘in concert’ signifies mutual agreement in a common
    plan or enterprise,” and requires the same mens rea as a
    conspiracy charge. Rutledge v. United States, 
    517 U.S. 292
    ,
    300 (1996) (construing 21 U.S.C. § 848(c)’s reference to acts
    “undertaken . . . in concert with five or more other persons”).
    Two other circuits have therefore concluded the “in concert
    with” element of § 2252A(g) requires proof of an agreement
    with three or more other persons to commit the series of
    predicate felonies. See United States v. Daniels, 
    653 F.3d 399
    , 413 (6th Cir. 2011) (“[F]or someone to have acted ‘in
    concert’ with [the defendant] . . . , he or she must have had
    the mens rea required to ‘conspire’ with him to commit that
    offense.”); United States v. Wayerski, 
    624 F.3d 1342
    , 1351
    (11th Cir. 2010) (holding the “in concert with” element
    “requires the same proof of an agreement that would also
    violate [a] conspiracy [charge]” for the same predicate
    offenses).
    We agree with these circuits that the Supreme Court’s
    construction of 21 U.S.C. § 848 informs our reading of
    § 2252A(g). Both sections criminalize analogous behavior:
    Section 848 targets continuing criminal drug enterprises
    whereas § 2252A targets continuing enterprises dedicated to
    distributing, receiving or accessing child pornography.
    Furthermore, the two statutes use similar language: Like
    § 2252A(g), § 848 prohibits committing a “series of
    12                UNITED STATES V. GROVO
    violations” “in concert with . . . other persons.” 21 U.S.C.
    § 848(c)(2). We see no reason to depart from our sister
    circuits’ sensible construction of the statute.
    The elements of conspiracy are well-trod territory in our
    precedent; the “gist” of the offense “is the confederation or
    combination of minds.” United States v. Lapier, 
    796 F.3d 1090
    , 1095 (9th Cir. 2015) (quoting United States v. Basurto,
    
    497 F.2d 781
    , 793 (9th Cir. 1974)). Read in this light,
    § 2252A(g)’s “in concert with” prong requires the
    government to prove the defendant and three others had “not
    only the opportunity” to unite for a common purpose, “but
    also the actual meeting of the minds.” 
    Id. (quoting Basurto,
    497 F.2d at 793). Here, that means proof, consistent with the
    general mens rea of conspiracy, that Grovo and Petersen each
    agreed in a common enterprise with at least three other
    persons to distribute, receive or access with intent to view
    child pornography. See § 2252A(g).
    It is an entirely separate proposition to suggest the statute
    also requires that each individual predicate felony have been
    committed “in concert with” three other persons. We agree
    with the Sixth Circuit that the more natural reading of
    § 2252A(g) is that “the required total of three other persons
    may be tallied by considering the predicate counts together.”
    
    Daniels, 653 F.3d at 412
    . The statute proscribes committing
    “a series of felony violations” and then says the defendant
    must “commit[] those offenses” – not “each offense” – “in
    concert with three or more other persons.” § 2252A(g)
    (emphasis added). The “in concert” requirement is therefore
    best read as referring to the “series” of predicate felonies,
    rather than each offense individually.
    UNITED STATES V. GROVO                     13
    Grovo argues the members’ activities on KOFD could not
    have occurred “in concert” because each member posted
    individually and at different times, often on different days,
    and could review other members’ posts at their own leisure.
    We reject this suggestion, however, because it misstates the
    requirement of the statute. As noted above, § 2252A(g)’s
    reference to committing the predicate series of violations “in
    concert” with others requires proof, consistent with the
    general mens rea of conspiracy, that the defendant agreed in
    a common enterprise with three other persons to distribute,
    receive or access with intent to view child pornography.
    § 2252A(g)(2). Grovo’s reading of the statute would impose
    the anomalous and atextual requirement that participants in a
    child exploitation enterprise act simultaneously. That has
    never been required to support a showing of conspiracy. On
    the contrary, “[o]ne may join a conspiracy already formed
    and in existence, and be bound by all that has gone on before
    in the conspiracy, even if unknown to him.” United States v.
    Knight, 
    416 F.2d 1181
    , 1184 (9th Cir. 1969); see also United
    States v. Bibbero, 
    749 F.2d 581
    , 588 (9th Cir. 1984)
    (upholding a conviction for conspiracy to import drugs where
    the defendant and his coconspirators acted at different times
    and in different locations).
    Petersen’s argument that only the creators or staff of
    KOFD can be liable for the entire child exploitation
    enterprise is equally unpersuasive. In his view, § 2252A(g)
    criminalizes the creation of the exploitation enterprise itself
    – here, the KOFD message board – but does not reach the
    members who merely participated in the exchange of child
    pornography without creating or managing the website. But
    this distinction appears nowhere in the statute. Section
    2252A(g) merely requires that the defendant commit the
    series of predicate offenses “in concert with three or more
    14               UNITED STATES V. GROVO
    other persons,” not three or more administrators or organizers
    of the scheme. § 2252A(g) (emphasis added). In this respect,
    the text of § 2252A(g) is broader than that of 21 U.S.C.
    § 848, considered in Rutledge, which specifically requires the
    offenses be undertaken “in concert with five or more other
    persons with respect to whom such person occupies a position
    of organizer, a supervisory position, or any other position of
    management.” We will not override Congress’ decision to
    use the word “person” by reading the statute instead to
    specifically require an organizer, supervisor or manager. See
    also 
    Wayerski, 624 F.3d at 1348
    (affirming convictions under
    § 2252A(g) without requiring the participation of
    administrators or staff).
    2.
    So long as Grovo and Petersen acted in an agreed-upon
    common enterprise with at least three other KOFD members,
    they are guilty of participating in a child exploitation
    enterprise in violation of § 2252A(g). Taking the evidence in
    the light most favorable to the prosecution, we conclude a
    rational trier of fact could have found beyond a reasonable
    doubt that this was the case. See 
    Nevils, 598 F.3d at 1163
    –64.
    Petersen urges, correctly, that a member’s mere presence
    in the upper level of the KOFD forums cannot constitute
    agreement to a common enterprise. See, e.g., United States
    v. Melchor-Lopez, 
    627 F.2d 886
    , 891 (9th Cir. 1980)
    (“[S]imple knowledge, approval of, or acquiescence in the
    object or purpose of the conspiracy, without an intention and
    agreement to accomplish a specific illegal objective, is not
    sufficient to make one a conspirator.”). Although the
    government must show some actual meeting of minds
    between the coconspirators, it may do so “through
    UNITED STATES V. GROVO                    15
    ‘circumstantial evidence that defendants acted together in
    pursuit of a common illegal goal.’” 
    Lapier, 796 F.3d at 1095
    (quoting United States v. Mincoff, 
    574 F.3d 1186
    , 1192 (9th
    Cir. 2009)). “A formal agreement is not necessary; rather the
    agreement may be inferred from the defendants’ acts pursuant
    to the scheme, or other circumstantial evidence.” 
    Id. (quoting Bibbero,
    749 F.2d at 587).            Coordination between
    conspirators, for example, “is strong circumstantial proof of
    agreement,” United States v. Iriarte-Ortega, 
    113 F.3d 1022
    ,
    1024 (9th Cir. 1997), and “[o]nce the existence of a
    conspiracy is established, evidence of only a slight
    connection is necessary to support a conviction of knowing
    participation in that conspiracy,” United States v. Sanchez-
    Mata, 
    925 F.2d 1166
    , 1167 (9th Cir. 1991).
    The government introduced ample proof at trial that
    Grovo and Petersen both were more than merely present on
    the KOFD boards, and did more than simply acquiesce in the
    exchange of child pornography between its members. On the
    contrary, they were active participants in the community, and
    a reasonable factfinder could infer from their activities that
    they agreed with other members to further the board’s
    common goal of sharing, accessing and viewing child
    pornography. Both defendants posted hundreds of times on
    KOFD, gained admission to the upper level of the KOFD
    board after being admitted and elevated through a vouching
    process by the Administrators, Moderators and Legionaires,
    repeatedly accessed and distributed child pornography in
    accordance with the rules of various forums, repeatedly
    thanked other members for posting child pornography, and
    posted tips on how to ensure anonymity and security from
    law enforcement.
    16               UNITED STATES V. GROVO
    Much of this evidence also supports the court’s finding
    that Grovo’s and Petersen’s activities were in coordination
    with three or more persons. Many of the KOFD threads
    introduced at trial involved the individual defendants and
    three or more other members either posting content or
    responding appreciatively to others’ posts. These interactions
    alone support a finding the defendants acted in concert with
    three or more individuals. Moreover, as noted above, the
    defendants had to be referred by an existing member to join
    KOFD and underwent the board’s vetting process to become
    Castle Residents, which had to be authorized by at least one
    of KOFD’s three administrators and may have involved
    discussions among the rest of KOFD’s seven-member staff.
    In sum, we have no trouble concluding a reasonable
    factfinder could determine Grovo and Petersen acted “in
    concert with” at least three other individuals. The evidence
    supports their convictions for participating in a child
    exploitation enterprise in violation of § 2252A(g), and the
    district court did not err in denying their Rule 29 motions.
    B.
    Grovo and Petersen next challenge the sufficiency of the
    evidence for their convictions of conspiracy to advertise child
    pornography in violation of § 2251(d). To convict, the
    government needed to prove (1) an agreement between two
    or more persons to commit the crime of advertising child
    pornography; and (2) that Grovo and Petersen intended to
    advertise child pornography. Cf. United States v. Moe,
    
    781 F.3d 1120
    , 1124 (9th Cir. 2015) (describing the generic
    elements of conspiracy). A defendant is guilty of advertising
    child pornography under § 2251(d) if he “knowingly makes,
    prints, or publishes, or causes to be made, printed, or
    UNITED STATES V. GROVO                          17
    published, any . . . advertisement seeking or offering . . . to
    receive, exchange, buy, produce, display, distribute, or
    reproduce any visual depiction” of child pornography.4
    Grovo and Petersen contend their posts were not
    “advertisements” for child pornography, and, therefore, argue
    the evidence at trial was insufficient to support their
    convictions.
    1.
    The definition of “advertisement” under § 2251(d)
    presents a question of first impression in this circuit. In the
    defendants’ view, an advertisement for child pornography
    must be published in the press or broadcast over the air, or
    must otherwise be publicly and generally known. They argue
    that, because their posts on KOFD were visible only to
    members of that message board and not to the public as a
    whole, they cannot be guilty of advertising child
    pornography.
    Again, in questions of statutory interpretation, “our
    starting point is the plain language of the statute.” United
    States v. Williams, 
    659 F.3d 1223
    , 1225 (9th Cir. 2011).
    Webster’s offers the following definitions of “advertisement”:
    1. “[t]he action of advertising: a calling
    attention to or making known” – where
    “advertising” is further defined as “the
    4
    The statute also forbids knowingly making, printing, or publishing
    “any notice . . . seeking or offering” child pornography. § 2251(d).
    Because the indictment charged Grovo and Petersen with conspiring only
    to advertise child pornography, we need not determine what constitutes a
    “notice” under the statute.
    18               UNITED STATES V. GROVO
    action of calling something . . . to the
    attention of the public esp. by means
    of printed or broadcas t paid
    announcements”;
    2. “a calling to public attention: publicity”;
    3. “a public notice; esp: a paid notice or
    announcement published in some public
    print . . . or broadcast over radio or
    television.”
    Advertisement, Webster’s Third Int’l Dictionary 31 (ed.
    Philip Babcock Grove 2002). The American Heritage
    Dictionary similarly defines “advertisement” as a “[a] notice,
    such as a poster or a paid announcement in the print,
    broadcast, or electronic media, designed to attract public
    attention or patronage.” Advertisement, Am. Heritage
    Dictionary 25 (5th ed. 2011). Black’s Law Dictionary has a
    narrower, commercial definition, describing an advertisement
    as “[a] commercial solicitation; an item of published or
    transmitted matter made with the intention of attracting
    clients or customers.”        Advertisement, Black’s Law
    Dictionary (10th ed. 2014).
    None of these definitions limits an advertisement to
    publication in the press or broadcast over the air. At most,
    they merely note that an advertisement “especially” includes
    communications “such as” those published in the press or
    broadcast. The means of publication or broadcast are not the
    definitive features of an “advertisement,” so long as the
    advertisement calls attention to its subject or makes a
    particular thing known. We therefore hold that an
    UNITED STATES V. GROVO                             19
    advertisement need not necessarily be published in the press
    or broadcast over the air.
    To be sure, four of the five definitions above involve
    some form of “public notice” or calling “public attention” to
    something. Although this supports the defendants’ argument
    that an “advertisement” may require some public component,
    it does not compel us to adopt their argument that an
    “advertisement” must be targeted to the entire public as a
    whole. Assuming without deciding that an “advertisement”
    under § 2251(d) requires some public component, we hold
    that advertising to a particular subset of the public is
    sufficient to sustain a conviction under the statute.5
    Grovo urges us to consider dictionary definitions
    suggesting “public” may refer to matters which are “exposed
    to general view” or “open.” Public, Webster’s Third Int’l
    Dictionary 1836. His argument ignores other definitions,
    however, which refer to matters relating to “community
    interests as opposed to private affairs,” or matters “accessible
    to or shared by all members of the community,” and which
    clarify the public may be either “the people as a whole” or
    may refer – with equal validity – to some “organized body of
    people” or “a group of people distinguished by common
    interests or characteristics.” Id.; see also Public, Am.
    Heritage Dictionary 1424 (defining “public” to include “[a]
    group of people sharing a common interest”). Under these
    5
    Both defendants argue they benefit from the rule of lenity, but that rule
    applies “only when a criminal statute contains a ‘grievous ambiguity or
    uncertainty,’ and ‘only if, after seizing everything from which aid can be
    derived,’ the Court ‘can make no more than a guess as to what Congress
    intended.’” Ocasio v. United States, 
    136 S. Ct. 1423
    , 1434 n.8 (2016)
    (quoting Muscarello v. United States, 
    524 U.S. 125
    , 138–39 (1998)). That
    is not the case here.
    20               UNITED STATES V. GROVO
    definitions, which accord with a commonsense understanding
    of what it means to advertise publicly, something may be
    public even though it is directed only to a subset of the
    population as a whole. We would call an advertisement
    placed in an alumni magazine, neighborhood circular or high
    school yearbook an “advertisement,” for example,
    notwithstanding that it is publicized to only a cohort of the
    community that shares a particular affiliation or interest.
    The Tenth Circuit reached a similar conclusion in United
    States v. Franklin, 
    785 F.3d 1365
    (10th Cir. 2015), where the
    defendant subscribed to a website that allowed him to accept
    a closed community of subscribers as his “tribe,” and with
    whom he shared pornographic images of children. 
    Id. at 1367.
    The court held the defendant’s communications to his
    tribe satisfied the statute’s definition of an advertisement,
    concluding that even if the word had a “public” component,
    that component could be construed to encompass a “subset of
    the public,” such as “an informal group of like-minded
    individuals.” 
    Id. at 1369.
    It rejected the defendant’s
    assumption that in order to be public, an advertisement must
    be “‘indiscriminately’ and ‘impersonally’ made available to
    everyone,” observing “[t]he public consists of numerous
    groups,” and “[t]hough the number of members” in a
    particular group may be “limited,” communications to the
    membership would remain public even if they were not made
    known to the entire public at large. 
    Id. Franklin’s reasoning
    accords with the view of other
    courts that communications to specific, closed communities
    can constitute advertisement within the meaning of § 2251.
    See 
    Wayerski, 624 F.3d at 1348
    (holding defendants liable
    under § 2251(d) when they exchanged pornography within a
    limited group of 45 individuals); United States v. Rowe,
    UNITED STATES V. GROVO                         21
    
    414 F.3d 271
    , 276 (2d Cir. 2005) (holding that posting to a
    chat room supported a conviction under § 2251(c)).
    Here, the defendants’ posts were shared with a closed
    community of 40 to 45 individuals on the KOFD message
    boards.     Their posts constitute advertisements under
    § 2251(d).6
    2.
    Having concluded that a post on KOFD can satisfy the
    legal definition of an advertisement under § 2251(d), we turn
    to the defendants’ individual motions challenging the
    sufficiency of the evidence underlying their convictions. We
    conclude the evidence is sufficient to sustain both defendants’
    convictions.
    As an initial matter, a reasonable factfinder could
    determine KOFD involved a conspiracy dedicated to
    advertising – and, indeed, exchanging and viewing – child
    pornography. A former member of KOFD testified its
    “theme” was “models under the age of 18,” which included
    child pornography. Notwithstanding KOFD’s general rule
    purporting to forbid members from posting child
    pornography, members regularly posted and requested child
    pornography with the acquiescence and participation of the
    board administrators. Specific rooms on the board were
    designated for particular types of child pornography, and the
    6
    Petersen’s argument that § 2251(d) and (e) apply only when a
    defendant has produced the pornography in question is foreclosed by
    United States v. 
    Williams, 659 F.3d at 1225
    , which held there is “no
    requirement that a defendant personally produce child pornography in
    order for criminal liability to attach” under § 2251(d).
    22               UNITED STATES V. GROVO
    “Wishing Well” allowed members to request images
    produced by specific studios or depicting specific underage
    models. Furthermore, members were accepted to KOFD and
    advanced to the upper levels based in part on their
    demonstrated interest in child pornography.
    The evidence against Grovo was sufficient to allow a
    rational factfinder to conclude beyond a reasonable doubt that
    he participated in KOFD with an intent to advertise child
    pornography. His post in the Wishing Well requesting
    pictures from the well-known child pornography studio
    Magic-image.com was an “advertisement seeking . . . to
    receive” child pornography from other members. § 2251(d).
    The evidence against Petersen was also sufficient. He
    argues his activities were “ambiguous” and observes there is
    no evidence that he ever posted to the Wishing Well itself.
    The first of these contentions is wrong; the second is
    irrelevant. Among Petersen’s other posts, he started two
    threads – one entitled “hot LS vid,” the other “LS at its best
    :)” – both of which included video and image files. Although
    the government was unable to download the attached files
    from links posted to KOFD, it recovered files with identical
    file names from Petersen’s computer that contained child
    pornography consistent with the descriptions in other
    members’ appreciative responses to Petersen’s posts. The
    evidence identified “LS” as the name of one of the most
    popular child pornography studios. A rational factfinder
    could conclude beyond a reasonable doubt that these two
    posts were advertisements “offering to . . . display” child
    pornography to other KOFD members. § 2251(d)(1).
    Petersen’s posts are not ambiguous merely because they did
    not contain an explicit declaration he was “offering child
    pornography.” On the contrary, no “particular magic words
    UNITED STATES V. GROVO                      23
    or phrases need to be included” to make a communication an
    advertisement. See 
    Rowe, 414 F.3d at 277
    (quoting United
    States v. Pabon-Cruz, 
    255 F. Supp. 2d 200
    , 218 (S.D.N.Y.
    2003)).
    Because these two KOFD threads support Petersen’s
    conviction, the absence of additional posts in the Wishing
    Well itself is immaterial. The government presented ample
    evidence at trial showing KOFD members, including the
    defendants, advertised child pornography in other rooms
    throughout the upper and lower boards.
    C.
    Finally, Grovo challenges the district court’s method of
    calculating restitution. Although we find his arguments
    unpersuasive, we believe the district court’s methodology for
    determining restitutionary losses was flawed in light of our
    subsequent decision in United States v. Galan, 
    804 F.3d 1287
    (9th Cir. 2015). We therefore vacate the restitution order and
    remand for recalculation.
    Under § 2259, a district court must order defendants “to
    pay the victim [of child pornography] . . . the full amount of
    the victim’s losses as determined by the court.” In Paroline
    v. United States, 
    134 S. Ct. 1710
    (2014), the Supreme Court
    established that restitution under § 2259 is proper “only to the
    extent the defendant’s offense proximately caused a victim’s
    losses,” 
    id. at 1722,
    and identified several factors a district
    court “might consider” in tailoring an award based on
    proximate causation, 
    id. at 1728.
    These factors “could
    include” (1) the number of past criminal defendants who
    contributed to the victim’s general losses, (2) a reasonable
    prediction of future offenders likely to be convicted for
    24                   UNITED STATES V. GROVO
    crimes contributing to the victim’s general losses, (3) a
    reasonable estimate of the broader number of offenders
    involved, (4) whether the defendant reproduced or distributed
    images of the victim, (5) whether the defendant had any
    connection to the initial production of images, and (6) how
    many images of the victim the defendant possessed. See 
    id. Applying Paroline,
    the district court here determined one
    victim’s general losses totaled $476,500,7 then divided that
    total by the number of previous restitution orders entered in
    other cases involving the same victim, concluded the
    Paroline factors did not warrant further modifying the award
    and added the victim’s legal expenses to reach a total
    restitution amount of $29,859, for which the defendants were
    jointly and severally liable.
    Grovo first argues the district court erred in failing to
    fashion restitution “in an amount that comports with [his]
    relative role in the causal process.” 
    Id. at 1727.
    But Paroline
    did not abrogate the longstanding rule that a defendant
    convicted of conspiracy is liable for restitution for “not only
    those [harms] resulting from the defendant’s individual
    actions, but also others caused by the conspiracy itself.”
    United States v. Laney, 
    189 F.3d 954
    , 965 (9th Cir. 1999).
    Indeed, Paroline expressly distinguished cases in which
    wrongdoers act in concert with each other, 
    see 134 S. Ct. at 1725
    , and derived its proximate causation rule from a
    statutory provision requiring restitution for any “losses
    suffered by the victim as a proximate result of the offense.”
    
    Id. at 1720–21
    (quoting § 2259(b)(3)(F)). When the
    “offense” is conspiracy, Paroline requires restitution for any
    7
    The district court denied restitution to another victim, a determination
    that is not at issue on appeal.
    UNITED STATES V. GROVO                      25
    losses proximately caused by the conspiracy – not those
    caused by the individual defendant.
    Grovo also argues the district court’s determination of
    relative causation was an abuse of discretion because
    application of the Paroline factors should have reduced the
    value of the victim’s losses. But Paroline adopted a flexible
    approach to causation, see 
    id. at 1723–24,
    which gives district
    courts “wide discretion” in fashioning restitution orders, 
    id. at 1729.
    Here, the district court properly considered each
    Paroline factor in determining the relative causal significance
    of the defendants’ conspiratorial conduct. It first divided the
    total amount of general losses by the number of previous
    restitution orders (factor 1) and concluded “[t]here is no
    information on which to reasonably predict future offenders”
    (factors 2 and 3). It then noted the KOFD board had one
    image of the victim (factor 6) that had been viewed 29 times
    (factor 4), but the defendants had not been involved in
    producing the image (factor 5). Concluding “these factors do
    not show a need to impose a greater award of restitution than
    those general losses attributable to the conspiracy,” the court
    did not further modify the award based on the Paroline
    factors.
    Grovo suggests the district court should instead have
    applied a “tiering” analysis that groups defendants together
    based on the Paroline factors, as the district court did in
    United States v. Gamble, 
    2015 WL 4162924
    (E.D. Tenn. July
    9, 2015). But Paroline expressly eschewed any “rigid
    formula” and suggested its factors “should rather serve as
    rough 
    guideposts.” 134 S. Ct. at 1728
    ; see 
    id. (“[I]t is
    neither
    necessary nor appropriate to prescribe a precise algorithm for
    determining the proper restitution amount.”). The district
    26                   UNITED STATES V. GROVO
    court plainly attempted to determine the conspiracy’s relative
    causal role and duly considered each Paroline factor.
    Notwithstanding the district court’s careful and thorough
    examination of the Paroline factors, however, we must vacate
    the restitution order and remand for recalculation of the
    victim’s general losses under the rule articulated in United
    States v. Galan.8 In Galan – which we decided after the
    sentencing below – we held a district court must, “to the
    extent possible,” disaggregate losses caused by “the original
    abuser’s actions” and losses caused by “the ongoing
    distribution and possession of images of that original abuse.”
    
    Galan, 804 F.3d at 1290
    –91. The district court, however,
    concluded below that “[t]he disaggregation of costs is not
    necessarily a brightline . . . and the continued harm and abuse
    arising out of the viewing of child pornography images may
    be part of a continuing, concerted harm,” drawing that
    proposition in part from the district court’s decision in Galan,
    which we had not yet overruled. It then determined that the
    “total amount of [the victim’s] general losses” was equal to
    the total future treatment costs the victim expected to incur in
    her lifetime. As in Galan, the district court reached this
    determination by relying on a psychological report that
    focused “primarily on the resulting harms and costs from her
    initial abuse” and showed only that her ongoing costs were
    “at least in part related to” – not caused by – “the continuing
    traffic in her image.” The injuries caused by the initial abuse
    8
    Because the government raised Galan in a citation of supplemental
    authorities submitted to the court under Federal Rule of Appellate
    Procedure 28(j) and the parties addressed it at oral argument, the issue is
    properly before us. Although the government argues we should review for
    plain error, we do not do so where, as here, “the new issue arises while the
    appeal is pending because of a change in the law.” United States v.
    Flores-Payon, 
    942 F.2d 556
    , 558 (9th Cir. 1991).
    UNITED STATES V. GROVO                      27
    may certainly have been aggravated by subsequent viewing,
    but neither the district court nor the psychological report
    concluded subsequent viewing caused all of the victim’s
    losses.
    Under Galan, that failure to disaggregate losses caused by
    the initial abuse was an abuse of discretion, and we must
    vacate and remand for recalculation of the victim’s general
    losses. We emphasize, however, that the district court’s
    method of apportioning that loss between the defendants here
    was sound under Paroline. After the court properly
    disaggregates the victim’s general losses, it is therefore
    permitted to reapply that method in reaching the individual
    restitution amount.
    III. CONCLUSION
    For the foregoing reasons, we affirm the defendants’
    convictions under § 2252A(g) and § 2251(d). We vacate the
    district court’s restitution order and remand to allow the
    district court to disaggregate the portion of the victim’s losses
    caused by the original abuse from those attributable to
    continued viewing of her image, consistent with the rule
    announced in United States v. Galan.
    AFFIRMED IN PART;                      VACATED          AND
    REMANDED IN PART.