In Re: Richard York v. United States ( 2023 )


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  •                      FOR PUBLICATION
    UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
    FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT
    In the Matter of: RICHARD W.                   No. 20-56047
    YORK,
    D.C. No. 2:19-cv-
    Debtor,                   06214-WDK
    ------------------------------
    OPINION
    RICHARD W. YORK,
    Appellant,
    v.
    UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
    through its agency Internal Revenue
    Service,
    Appellee.
    Appeal from the United States District Court
    for the Central District of California
    William D. Keller, District Judge, Presiding
    Argued and Submitted, September 13, 2021
    Submission Vacated, May 22, 2023
    Resubmitted, August 7, 2023
    Pasadena, California
    Filed August 11, 2023
    2                          YORK V. USA
    Before: Ronald M. Gould, Marsha S. Berzon, and Daniel
    P. Collins, Circuit Judges.
    Opinion by Judge Collins;
    Dissent by Judge Berzon
    SUMMARY *
    Bankruptcy
    The panel affirmed the district court’s order affirming
    the bankruptcy court’s judgment in favor of the United
    States in an adversary proceeding brought by Richard York,
    a Chapter 13 debtor.
    York, former Chief Financial Officer of Convergence
    Ethanol, Inc., and former employee of Convergence and its
    subsidiary California MEMS USA, Inc., challenged his
    liability for the unpaid payroll taxes of California
    MEMS. The bankruptcy court denied both sides’ motions
    for summary judgment on the issue of whether York was a
    “responsible person” regarding the payroll taxes under 
    26 U.S.C. § 6672
    . Rather than proceed to trial, York agreed to
    a stipulated judgment allowing the Internal Revenue
    Service’s claim, but he made clear on the record that his
    consent was subject to his stated intention to appeal that
    judgment on the grounds that his motion for summary
    judgment should have been granted.
    *
    This summary constitutes no part of the opinion of the court. It has
    been prepared by court staff for the convenience of the reader.
    YORK V. USA                        3
    The panel held that it had jurisdiction under 
    28 U.S.C. § 158
    , on appeal from the stipulated judgment, to review the
    earlier denial of summary judgment. The panel concluded
    that the bankruptcy court’s judgment was sufficiently “final”
    under § 158(d)(1) because it fully disposed of the claims
    raised by York’s adversary complaint. The panel held that
    jurisdiction was not precluded by the holding of Ortiz v.
    Jordan, 
    562 U.S. 180
     (2011), and Dupree v. Younger, 
    598 U.S. 729
     (2023), that, on appeal from a final judgment after
    a trial on the merits, an appellate court may not review a
    pretrial order denying summary judgment if that denial was
    based on the presence of a disputed issue of material
    fact. Here, there was no full record developed at trial that
    could be said to supersede the summary judgment
    record. The panel held that jurisdiction also was not
    precluded by the holding of Microsoft v. Baker, 
    582 U.S. 23
    (2017), that plaintiffs who were refused class certification
    could not obtain review of that interlocutory order by
    voluntarily dismissing their individual claims with prejudice
    while reserving a right to revive them if the appeal of the
    class-certification denial was successful. The panel
    concluded that the normal rule against appealing a consent
    judgment did not apply because the circumstances made
    clear that York intended to preserve his right to appeal the
    adverse summary judgment order, and his reservation of a
    right to appeal the consent judgment was not fundamentally
    inconsistent with his consent. Finally, the panel concluded
    that this was not a case in which York’s acquiescence to the
    stipulated judgment destroyed the adversity required to
    establish the case or controversy required by Article III.
    Turning to the merits, the panel held that the bankruptcy
    court correctly concluded that York failed to show that,
    viewing the summary judgment record in the light most
    4                        YORK V. USA
    favorable to the IRS, a rational trier of fact could not
    reasonably find in the IRS’s favor. The panel held that the
    IRS may impose a penalty on a person required to collect
    and then pay over a payroll tax if that individual (1) qualifies
    as a “responsible person,” (2) fails to collect or account and
    pay over the tax, and (3) acts willfully in doing so. York did
    not dispute that the relevant payroll taxes were not paid
    over. The panel concluded that York could reasonably be
    found, on the record in this case, to be a responsible person
    because he had the effective power to pay the taxes. The
    panel further concluded that a trier of fact could reasonably
    determine that York acted willfully.
    Dissenting, Judge Berzon wrote that the parties’
    agreement that the IRS would prevail at trial superseded the
    bankruptcy court’s earlier decision to deny summary
    judgment and send the case to trial. As a result, York could
    not appeal the denial of summary judgment.
    COUNSEL
    Mark Bernsley (argued), Law Offices of Mark Bernsley
    APC, Woodland Hills, California, for Appellant.
    Robert J. Branman (argued) and Joan I. Oppenheimer,
    Attorneys; Tracy Wilkison, Acting United States Attorney;
    E. Martin Estrada, United States Attorney; David A.
    Hubbert, Acting Assistant Attorney General; Tax
    Division/Appellate Section, United States Department of
    Justice, Washington, D.C.; Jolene Tanner, Assistant United
    States Attorney; United States Department of Justice, Los
    Angeles, California; for Appellee.
    YORK V. USA                         5
    OPINION
    COLLINS, Circuit Judge:
    After a company failed to pay over payroll taxes for its
    employees, the Internal Revenue Service (“IRS”) assessed,
    pursuant to Internal Revenue Code (“I.R.C.”) § 6672, a
    personal penalty for the amount of the unpaid taxes against
    the company’s former Chief Financial Officer, Richard
    York. When York filed for bankruptcy, the IRS filed a proof
    of claim in his bankruptcy proceeding, which in turn led
    York to file an adversary complaint challenging his liability
    to the IRS. The parties ultimately filed cross-motions for
    summary judgment, but the bankruptcy court denied them
    both in relevant part. Rather than proceed to trial, York
    agreed to a stipulated judgment allowing the IRS’s claim,
    but he made clear on the record that his consent was subject
    to his stated intention to appeal that judgment on the grounds
    that his motion for summary judgment should have been
    granted. The district court asserted jurisdiction over the
    matter as an appeal from a final judgment in an adversary
    proceeding, see 
    28 U.S.C. § 158
    (a)(1), but it affirmed on the
    merits. York thereupon appealed to this court.
    After requesting and receiving the parties’ supplemental
    briefs as to whether we have jurisdiction, on appeal from a
    stipulated judgment, to review an earlier denial of summary
    judgment, we conclude that we have jurisdiction over York’s
    appeal. On the merits, we agree that the bankruptcy court
    properly denied York’s motion for summary judgment, and
    we therefore affirm.
    6                        YORK V. USA
    I
    Subject to only a handful of exceptions that are irrelevant
    to our review, the IRS expressly stated below that, for
    purposes of responding to York’s summary judgment
    motion, it did “not dispute the facts as proposed” by York in
    his “Separate Statement of Uncontroverted Facts.”
    Accordingly, for purposes of this appeal, we take the
    following facts as true.
    For several years, York was an employee of both
    Convergence Ethanol, Inc. (“Convergence”), an oil-and-gas
    technology company, and its subsidiary California MEMS
    USA, Inc. (“CA MEMS,” and, collectively with
    Convergence, the “Company”). York “was hired primarily
    to effect compliance with SEC filing requirements” for
    Convergence and its subsidiaries, and in order to allow him
    to sign the necessary certifications, he was given the title of
    Chief Financial Officer (“CFO”) of Convergence.
    Convergence’s President and Chief Executive Officer, Dr.
    James Latty, specifically told York that York would “not be
    involved in the day to day financial operations” or the
    accounting of Convergence and its subsidiaries, which
    instead would be handled by an “experienced C.P.A.”
    Convergence had three main subsidiaries, one of which
    was CA MEMS, and each of these subsidiaries had its own
    controller to oversee its finances. For CA MEMS, that
    person was Miriam Wolverton, a C.P.A. Convergence,
    however, did not have its own financial accounting records
    or bank accounts, and for financial purposes, it was treated
    as one and the same with CA MEMS. Consequently, the
    controllers for the other two subsidiaries reported to
    Wolverton. York ranked higher than Wolverton as a formal
    YORK V. USA                         7
    matter, but he nonetheless lacked the authority to issue direct
    orders to her, to set her salary, or to terminate her.
    York had check-signing authority for the Company, and
    he kept the Company’s checks in his office locked in a
    cabinet, to which only he had a key. However, it “was not
    York’s function to, nor did he, originate any payments.”
    Instead, Wolverton was in charge of keeping track of bills
    and making sure they were paid. When checks were
    required, Wolverton would prepare them, provide them to
    York along with related documentation, and York would
    sign them. If a question arose as to which bills to pay,
    Wolverton would raise the matter with Latty directly, with
    Latty and York jointly, or with York who then discussed it
    with Latty. Latty “had final approval of all payments,” an
    authority he sometimes abused. However, shortly after
    beginning his employment in 2004, York learned that CA
    MEMS owed unpaid payroll taxes. York asked that
    Wolverton not make payroll payments unless the
    corresponding payroll tax deposits could also be made.
    After this 2004 deficiency was resolved, York did not
    become aware of any subsequent incidents of past-due
    payroll taxes until August 2007.
    Under the Company’s “Approval Matrix” for making
    payments, Wolverton had authority to make payroll tax
    payments of under $10,000, and York had similar authority
    up to $50,000. Each such payment that became due in 2007
    for payroll taxes was under $10,000. Although Wolverton
    did not pay all of the taxes that were due for that year, the
    partial payments that were made were submitted
    electronically by her, using an electronic account to which
    York did not have the password.
    8                           YORK V. USA
    Convergence encountered substantial financial trouble,
    and by December 21, 2007, it and its three main subsidiaries
    had ceased operations and were all in Chapter 7 bankruptcy
    proceedings. York resigned from Convergence and CA
    MEMS, effective December 31, 2007.                The IRS
    subsequently contended that CA MEMS had failed to pay
    the payroll taxes due for three quarters of 2007 and two
    quarters of 2008. In 2010, the IRS assessed a penalty against
    York personally for the unpaid taxes, pursuant to I.R.C.
    § 6672(a).
    In August 2016, York filed for Chapter 13 bankruptcy,
    and two months later the IRS submitted a proof of claim
    against him in the amount of $116,843.65. 1 York initiated
    an adversary proceeding against the IRS to dispute his
    liability for a penalty under I.R.C. § 6672(a). In his
    complaint, York asserted that he was not a “responsible
    person” for purposes of § 6672(a), which by its terms only
    applies to a “person required to collect, truthfully account
    for, and pay over any tax imposed by this title.” I.R.C.
    § 6672(a). York also disputed whether the Company
    actually owed all of the taxes that the IRS had claimed were
    due.
    The parties filed cross-motions for summary judgment.
    The bankruptcy court granted York’s motion as to the
    remaining 2008 taxes in dispute, leaving only the payroll
    taxes from 2007 at issue. As to whether York was a
    responsible person subject to § 6672(a), the bankruptcy
    court concluded that “the record isn’t clear enough on what
    actually has happened here.” The court added that, despite
    1
    Although this figure was initially disputed, the parties subsequently
    agreed that the amount properly at issue was only $15,119.34, and the
    IRS submitted an amended claim for that lesser amount.
    YORK V. USA                        9
    the parties’ agreement as to the underlying facts, the record
    did not establish “what exactly is the scope of [the CFO]
    title, what does it mean, is it required for signing SEC
    documents and the like.” Because “[n]one of that is in the
    record,” the bankruptcy court concluded that “there is still
    an open question in my mind as to whether [York] is a
    responsible person.” Believing that “a trial would perhaps
    illuminate some of that information,” the bankruptcy court
    denied both sides’ summary judgment motions on the issue
    of whether York was a responsible person under § 6672(a).
    Based upon his conclusion that a trial on the remaining
    amounts at issue was neither cost effective nor necessary,
    York filed a motion for entry of a judgment in favor of the
    IRS, in the amount that the IRS then requested, but with the
    condition that the judgment would be expressly “subject to
    York retaining his right to appeal” the denial of summary
    judgment. The IRS took no position as to whether such a
    reservation would be effective to allow York to appeal, but
    it otherwise did not oppose York’s motion. The bankruptcy
    court, however, denied the motion.
    Rather than proceed to trial, York and the IRS submitted
    a “stipulation for entry of judgment.” The stipulation read
    in its entirety as follows:
    IT IS HEREBY STIPULATED AND
    AGREED that the Court may enter the
    following Judgment:
    “IT IS HEREBY ORDERED,
    ADJUDGED AND DECREED:
    1. The United States Claim [Claim 3],
    as amended, in the total amount of
    $15,119.34, is allowed.
    10                       YORK V. USA
    2. Plaintiff York is not entitled to a
    refund.”
    The bankruptcy court entered that judgment verbatim in June
    2019. York then timely appealed to the district court.
    The district court concluded that it had jurisdiction under
    
    28 U.S.C. §§ 158
    (a)(1) and (c)(1), which authorizes appeals
    to the district court from “final judgments, orders, and
    decrees.” 
    Id.
     at § 158(a)(1). As to the merits, the court
    affirmed the denial of summary judgment, concluding that
    “even with the facts stipulated to by the parties, material
    facts were still at issue.” York timely appealed the district
    court’s order.
    II
    We first address certain threshold questions of
    jurisdiction that we raised sua sponte in an order directing
    the parties to submit supplemental briefs. See Sahagun v.
    Landmark Fence Co. (In re Landmark Fence Co.), 
    801 F.3d 1099
    , 1102 (9th Cir. 2015) (applying, in the bankruptcy
    context, the settled rule that courts may raise jurisdictional
    issues sua sponte).
    Here, the “final” judgment that York appealed to the
    district court, and then to this court, was an adverse judgment
    that York stipulated should be entered against him on his
    adversary complaint in the bankruptcy court, and the sole
    issue he raises on appeal was whether the bankruptcy court
    correctly denied his earlier motion for entry of summary
    judgment in his favor. That unique posture raises two
    potential concerns. First, the ordinary rule is that “orders
    denying summary judgment do not qualify as ‘final
    decisions’ subject to appeal,” Ortiz v. Jordan, 
    562 U.S. 180
    ,
    188 (2011), and at least in some circumstances, such a denial
    YORK V. USA                        11
    may not be “reviewable on appeal” from a final judgment
    either, McCollough v. Johnson, Rodenburg & Lauinger,
    LLC, 
    637 F.3d 939
    , 955 n.4 (9th Cir. 2011) (citing Ortiz, 
    562 U.S. at 184
    ). Second, as the Supreme Court has recently
    cautioned, a party’s voluntary acceptance of an adverse
    judgment on the merits may not always be sufficient to
    permit review of an earlier interlocutory ruling. See
    Microsoft Corp. v. Baker, 
    582 U.S. 23
    , 26–27 (2017)
    (holding that plaintiffs who were refused class certification
    could not obtain review of that interlocutory order by
    voluntarily dismissing their individual claims with prejudice
    while reserving a right to revive them if the appeal of the
    class-certification denial was successful).
    Having reviewed the parties’ supplemental briefs, we
    conclude that we have jurisdiction to reach the merits of the
    bankruptcy court’s denial of York’s summary judgment
    motion. In explaining that conclusion, we begin by
    summarizing the general principles governing our
    jurisdiction in bankruptcy cases before turning, respectively,
    to whether the principles set forth in either Ortiz v. Jordan
    or Microsoft Corp. v. Baker preclude us from exercising
    jurisdiction to review the bankruptcy court’s denial of
    summary judgment.
    A
    Where, as here, a bankruptcy court order has been
    appealed to a district court, our jurisdiction is controlled by
    
    28 U.S.C. § 158
    . Section 158(a) provides that district courts
    shall have jurisdiction “to hear appeals” (1) “from final
    judgments, orders, and decrees” of the bankruptcy courts;
    (2) from a specified category of interlocutory orders related
    to the filing of plans under Chapter 11; and (3) with leave of
    the district court, from any “other interlocutory orders and
    12                           YORK V. USA
    decrees” of the bankruptcy court. See 
    28 U.S.C. § 158
    (a)
    (emphasis added). 2 Section 158(d)(1), in turn, grants the
    courts of appeals jurisdiction over “appeals from all final
    decisions, judgments, orders, and decrees” entered by
    district courts under § 158(a). See id. § 158(d)(1). The
    district court in this case did not grant leave to appeal an
    interlocutory order; instead, it rested its jurisdiction on the
    conclusion that the bankruptcy court had entered a final
    judgment that is reviewable under § 158(a)(1). Accordingly,
    under §§ 158(a)(1) and (d)(1), both the district court’s
    jurisdiction and our jurisdiction turn on whether the
    bankruptcy court’s judgment was sufficiently “final.” See
    Rains v. Flinn (In re Rains), 
    428 F.3d 893
    , 901 (9th Cir.
    2005) (“Under 
    28 U.S.C. § 158
    (d), appellate jurisdiction
    exists when the bankruptcy court order and the decision of
    the district court acting in its bankruptcy appellate capacity
    are both final orders.” (citation omitted)).
    As the Supreme Court has explained, the rules for
    determining finality “are different in bankruptcy.” Bullard
    v. Blue Hills Bank, 
    575 U.S. 496
    , 501 (2015). Because a
    “bankruptcy case involves ‘an aggregation of individual
    controversies,’ many of which would exist as stand-alone
    lawsuits but for the bankrupt status of the debtor,” “Congress
    has long provided that orders in bankruptcy cases may be
    immediately appealed if they finally dispose of discrete
    disputes within the larger case.” 
    Id.
     (citations omitted); see
    also 
    id.
     at 501–02 (noting that the statute defining a district
    court’s appellate jurisdiction in bankruptcy cases
    2
    Where, as in the Ninth Circuit, a Bankruptcy Appellate Panel (“BAP”)
    has been established, the BAP would instead hear any such appeals
    unless one of the parties affirmatively elects to have the appeal heard by
    the district court. See 
    28 U.S.C. § 158
    (c)(1). Here, York elected to have
    the appeal heard by the district court.
    YORK V. USA                        13
    “authorizes appeals as of right not only from final judgments
    in cases but from ‘final judgments, orders, and decrees . . .
    in cases and proceedings’” (citation omitted)). In particular,
    we have held that a bankruptcy court judgment “dispos[ing]
    of all claims raised in [an] adversary complaint” is
    sufficiently “final” for purposes of §§ 158(a)(1) and (d)(1)
    and that an “appeal from the district court’s affirmance
    thereof [is] from a final judgment for jurisdictional
    purposes.” Caneva v. Sun Cmtys. Operating Ltd. P’ship (In
    re Caneva), 
    550 F.3d 755
    , 759 n.1 (9th Cir. 2008). That
    conclusion makes sense because, had the adversary
    complaint been filed as a “stand-alone lawsuit[],” Bullard,
    575 U.S. at 501, a judgment disposing of all of the claims in
    that suit would be considered final under the standards of 
    28 U.S.C. § 1291
    .
    By allowing the IRS’s amended claim for $15,119.34
    and rejecting York’s claim for a refund or for other relief
    disallowing the IRS’s claim, the bankruptcy court’s
    judgment in this case fully disposed of the claims raised by
    York’s adversary complaint.        And by affirming the
    bankruptcy court’s judgment in full, the district court’s
    judgment likewise disposed of all claims raised by York’s
    adversary complaint. Accordingly, absent some reason to
    conclude otherwise, the judgment that has been appealed to
    us would appear to be sufficiently “final” for purposes of
    § 158(d)(1). We identified two such possible reasons earlier,
    and we address those issues in the ensuing two sections.
    B
    In Ortiz v. Jordan, the Supreme Court held that, on
    appeal from a final judgment after a trial on the merits, an
    appellate court may not review a pretrial order denying
    summary judgment if that denial was based on the presence
    14                       YORK V. USA
    of a disputed issue of material fact. See 
    562 U.S. at
    183–84,
    186–87. Neither Ortiz’s rule, nor the reasoning underlying
    it, precludes us from exercising jurisdiction to review the
    bankruptcy court’s denial of summary judgment here.
    As Ortiz explained, a determination that the record at
    summary judgment reveals a “genuine dispute as to a
    material fact” is, by its nature, interlocutory, 
    562 U.S. at 188
    (simplified), and the resulting denial of summary judgment
    thereafter “retains its interlocutory character as simply a step
    along the route to final judgment,” 
    id. at 184
    . When that
    summary judgment denial is followed by a trial on the
    merits, however, “the full record developed in court
    supersedes the record existing at the time of the summary-
    judgment motion.” 
    Id.
     (emphasis added). As a result, any
    post-judgment appellate inquiry into the sufficiency of the
    evidence “must be evaluated in light of the character and
    quality of the evidence received in court” at the trial and not
    by examining the adequacy of the evidence in the record of
    the summary judgment motion. 
    Id.
     As the Court explained,
    “[q]uestions going to the sufficiency of the evidence are not
    preserved for appellate review by a summary judgment
    motion alone.” 
    Id. at 190
     (citation omitted). Rather, in the
    context of a jury trial, “challenges of that order ‘must be
    renewed post-trial’” by invoking the procedures set forth in
    Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 50. 
    Id.
     (citation omitted).
    Because Rule 50’s procedures had not been properly
    invoked in Ortiz, the court of appeals in that case “had no
    warrant to upset the jury’s decision,” nor the resulting
    judgment, based on any issue concerning the sufficiency of
    the evidence. 
    Id. at 192
    .
    The Supreme Court recently reaffirmed this
    understanding of Ortiz’s rule—and that rule’s limits—in
    Dupree v. Younger, 
    598 U.S. 729
     (2023). As the Court
    YORK V. USA                         15
    explained, Ortiz effectively created an exception to the
    “general rule” that, on appeal from a final judgment, a party
    may challenge any adverse interlocutory “rulings that led up
    to the judgment.” 
    Id. at 734
     (citation omitted). Ortiz’s
    exception, the Court explained, rests on the fact that “[s]ome
    interlocutory district-court rulings, however, are
    unreviewable after final judgment because they are
    overcome by later developments in the litigation.” 
    Id.
    (emphasis added). A “denial of summary judgment on
    sufficiency-of-the-evidence grounds” is “one such ruling,”
    because the facts whose sufficiency is being assessed are
    “develop[ed] and clarif[ied] as the case progresses from
    summary judgment to a jury verdict.” 
    Id.
     Accordingly, once
    the “complete trial record” has superseded the earlier
    “summary-judgment record,” any error concerning the
    “district court’s assessment of the facts based on the
    summary-judgment record becomes ancient history and is
    not subject to appeal.” 
    Id.
     (simplified).
    But the same is not true, the Court held, when the earlier
    summary judgment ruling resolved “purely legal issues—
    that is, issues that can be resolved without reference to any
    disputed facts.” 
    Id. at 735
    . Although the factual record has
    indeed changed by virtue of the subsequent trial, nothing
    about those new facts supplants those earlier “pretrial legal
    rulings,” which are therefore left “undisturbed.” 
    Id.
    Because a summary judgment ruling resolving purely legal
    issues is not overtaken by the subsequent development of a
    new factual record at trial, the rationale for Ortiz’s exception
    does not apply. 
    Id.
     Accordingly, “these rulings follow the
    ‘general rule’ and merge into the final judgment, at which
    point they are reviewable on appeal.” 
    Id. at 735
     (citation
    omitted).
    16                           YORK V. USA
    Here, the crucial ingredient for triggering Ortiz’s
    exception to the ordinary merger rule is absent. If York’s
    claim for relief against the IRS had proceeded to a bench
    trial, then the new factual record developed at that trial
    would have “wholly supplant[ed]” the summary-judgment
    record and the “pretrial factual rulings” made based on that
    earlier record. Dupree, 598 U.S. at 735. Thus, although the
    particular procedural requirements applicable to jury trials
    under Rule 50 would not have applied, 3 the trial record at
    that bench trial would still have “supersede[d]” the earlier
    summary judgment record. Ortiz, 
    562 U.S. at 184
    ; see also
    Dupree, 598 U.S. at 734; Kreg Therapeutics, Inc. v. VitalGo,
    Inc., 
    919 F.3d 405
    , 416 (7th Cir. 2019) (applying Ortiz in the
    context of a bench trial). In that circumstance, Ortiz’s
    exception to the ordinary merger rule would apply and we
    would have been precluded from reviewing the bankruptcy
    court’s determination that the summary judgment record
    presented a genuine issue for trial. Instead, in addressing the
    sufficiency of the evidence to support the ensuing judgment,
    we would have examined whether the evidence at the bench
    trial was sufficient to support whatever decision that trial
    produced. See Eskanos & Adler, PC v. Leetien, 
    309 F.3d 1210
    , 1213 (9th Cir. 2002) (noting that we review a
    bankruptcy court’s factual findings for clear error); Jamo v.
    Katahdin Fed. Credit Union (In re Jamo), 
    283 F.3d 392
    , 401
    (1st Cir. 2002) (noting that, in addition to reviewing factual
    3
    See FED. R. BANKR. P. 9015(c) (Rule 50, which by its terms applies
    only to jury trials, generally applies in bankruptcy cases and
    proceedings); FED. R. BANK. P. 7052 (Federal Rule of Civil Procedure
    52 generally “applies in adversary proceedings”); FED. R. CIV. P.
    52(a)(5) (stating that, in a bench trial, a “party may later question the
    sufficiency of the evidence supporting the findings, whether or not the
    party requested findings, objected to them, moved to amend them, or
    moved for partial findings.”).
    YORK V. USA                         17
    findings under the clear error standard, a court of appeals
    may also consider de novo “the question of whether the
    evidence is legally sufficient to support particular findings”).
    But no such trial ever occurred in this case, because the
    parties instead stipulated to the entry of a judgment on the
    merits in favor of the IRS. Consequently, there was no “full
    record developed in court” at trial that could be said to
    “supersede[] the record existing at the time of the summary-
    judgment motion.” Ortiz, 
    562 U.S. at 184
    ; see Dupree, 598
    U.S. at 735–36 (“[A]n appellate court’s review of factual
    challenges after a trial is rooted in the complete trial
    record.” (emphasis added)). The net result is that the
    rationale that Ortiz and Dupree gave for disallowing post-
    trial appellate review of fact-based summary judgment
    denials is not present here. There is therefore no basis for
    applying Ortiz’s exception to the otherwise applicable
    “general rule” that interlocutory orders “merge into the final
    judgment, at which point they are reviewable on appeal.”
    Dupree, 598 U.S. at 735 (citation omitted); see also Hall v.
    City of Los Angeles, 
    697 F.3d 1059
    , 1070–71 (9th Cir. 2012)
    (noting the general rule that “[a]ll interlocutory rulings
    merge[] in the final judg[]ment” and are brought “within the
    jurisdiction of our court” on appeal from that judgment
    (citations omitted)).
    The dissent contends that the Ortiz rule should
    nonetheless be extended to cover the very different situation
    presented here, in which a party has stipulated to the entry of
    an adverse judgment subject to an express reservation of the
    right to appeal it. According to the dissent, any such
    stipulation necessarily reflects an agreement as to the truth
    of the “factual predicates” that underlie that judgment. See
    Dissent at 41–42. That, in the dissent’s view, means that
    “the parties have in effect stipulated to a trial record” and
    18                       YORK V. USA
    have thereby “effectively developed the facts beyond the
    summary judgment record.” See Dissent at 40 (emphasis
    added). The dissent’s assumptions are factually and legally
    wrong. By stipulating to an adverse judgment subject to his
    express reservation of the right to appeal it, York did not
    thereby admit that the correct view of the ultimate facts is
    adverse to his position, nor did he stipulate to some new,
    unidentified set of underlying facts that go beyond the
    summary judgment record. No such agreement is reflected
    anywhere in the language of the parties’ concise stipulation.
    Nor is any such agreement about the actual truth of the
    ultimate facts inescapably inherent in the parties’ stipulation,
    as the dissent seems to think. On the contrary, that
    stipulation can be—and most naturally should be—read as
    simply reflecting the parties’ agreement that a trier should be
    deemed to have rejected York’s contentions based on the
    existing record developed at summary judgment—a record
    to which, as noted earlier, the parties did in fact stipulate.
    See supra at 6. The stipulation thus need not and should not
    be read as resting on an unknown and unstated hypothetical
    set of superseding facts. By instead effectively deeming that
    a trier has entered a judgment in the IRS’s favor based on the
    agreed-upon summary judgment record (as the bankruptcy
    court held that a trier could do), the stipulation does not in
    any sense supersede that record, and the predicate for
    applying the Ortiz exception is absent here. And by leaving
    the summary judgment record intact, the stipulation
    preserves for appeal the question whether the bankruptcy
    YORK V. USA                                 19
    court correctly held that a judgment in the IRS’s favor could
    properly be rendered on that record. 4
    C
    We next consider whether York’s appeal runs afoul of
    the jurisdictional limitations recognized in Microsoft Corp.
    v. Baker, 
    582 U.S. 23
     (2017), and whether there are any
    remaining reasons that York’s acquiescence in an adverse
    judgment bars this appeal. We answer both questions in the
    negative.
    1
    In Baker, the named plaintiffs sought to represent a
    putative class of owners of Xbox videogaming systems in a
    suit against Microsoft alleging that the Xbox was defectively
    designed. 582 U.S. at 33. After the district court struck the
    plaintiffs’ class allegations, the plaintiffs sought permission
    to take an interlocutory appeal under Federal Rule of Civil
    Procedure 23(f), but this court denied that petition. Id. at 33–
    34. Rather than proceed to final judgment on their individual
    claims—which would then have allowed them, on appeal
    from that judgment, to challenge the earlier denial of class
    certification—the plaintiffs “moved to dismiss their case
    with prejudice.” Id. at 35. In doing so, however, they
    4
    Even setting aside the dissent’s flawed and counterfactual effort to fit
    this case into Ortiz’s carefully limited exception, there is a further aspect
    of the dissent’s position, which appears to rest on a broader premise. The
    dissent appears to contend that, regardless of whether the stipulation
    reflects a new, superseding factual record, the mere act of stipulating to
    an adverse judgment on the merits—even subject to an express
    reservation of the right to appeal it—must be understood in law as
    relinquishing any ability to contest those merits on appeal. As explained
    below, that position is inconsistent with our caselaw concerning appeals
    from stipulated judgments. See infra section II(C)(2).
    20                        YORK V. USA
    “reserved the right to revive their claims should the Court of
    Appeals reverse the District Court’s certification denial.” Id.
    at 27. Although “Microsoft stipulated to the dismissal,” it
    also expressly took the position that the plaintiffs’
    procedural gambit would not work and that they “would
    have ‘no right to appeal’ the order striking the class
    allegations after thus dismissing their claims.” Id. at 35. We
    asserted jurisdiction over the plaintiffs’ appeal and reversed
    the district court’s order striking plaintiffs’ class allegations.
    Id. at 35–36. The Supreme Court reversed, holding that the
    plaintiffs’ “tactic does not give rise to a ‘final decisio[n]’
    under § 1291.” Id. at 37.
    In holding that the plaintiffs’ voluntary dismissal with
    prejudice did not give rise to a final judgment allowing
    review of the earlier class certification denial, the Court
    relied on two primary considerations. First, the plaintiffs’
    tactic “invites protracted litigation and piecemeal appeals,”
    by placing “the decision whether an immediate appeal will
    lie” exclusively in the hands of the plaintiff and by creating
    the possibility (in the event of a remand of such an appeal)
    that the plaintiffs could “exercise that option more than once,
    stopping and starting the district court proceedings with
    repeated interlocutory appeals.” Id. at 37–38. Second, by
    “allow[ing] indiscriminate appellate review of interlocutory
    orders” as of right, the plaintiffs’ tactic would “severely
    undermine[]” the “careful calibration” reflected in Rule
    23(f)’s specific rules, which require the discretionary
    permission of the court of appeals in order to obtain
    immediate appellate review of “inherently interlocutory”
    orders concerning class certification. Id. at 39–40 (citations
    omitted). The Court also noted that the plaintiffs’ tactic
    would undermine “Rule 23(f)’s evenhanded” approach,
    which expressly allows both plaintiffs and defendants to
    YORK V. USA                              21
    seek review of class certification decisions. Id. at 42. In
    contrast, the Court observed, the plaintiffs’ “theory permits
    plaintiffs only, never defendants, to force an immediate
    appeal of an adverse certification ruling.” Id. at 41. In light
    of these considerations, the Court held that “the voluntary
    dismissal essayed by [the plaintiffs] does not qualify as a
    ‘final decision’ within the compass of § 1291.” Id. at 27.
    Nothing comparable to that confluence of considerations
    is present here. York’s request for a stipulated judgment and
    his ensuing narrowly focused appeal present no possibility
    of reopening the proceedings below, much less reopening
    them multiple times. If we consider York’s appeal and agree
    with him that his motion for summary judgment should have
    been granted, then we would reverse and direct the entry of
    that different final judgment. But if we conclude that his
    motion was properly denied, then we would affirm the
    judgment in the IRS’s favor. Either way, there will be no
    further proceedings below (beyond any additional ancillary
    matters that might be associated with entry of any final
    judgment). Thus, in contrast to Baker, there is no sense in
    which York’s procedural device here could return him to his
    earlier interlocutory position in which the case was in a
    pretrial posture, with the potential for a trial on the merits.
    As a result, one of the essential ingredients that made the
    judgment in Baker nonfinal is missing here. 5
    5
    Moreover, York did not proceed by way of a simple request for
    voluntary dismissal of his adversary complaint with prejudice. Cf. FED.
    R. BANKR. P. 7041 (stating that, except for an adversary “complaint
    objecting to the debtor’s discharge,” the voluntary dismissal provisions
    of Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 41 apply in bankruptcy court). He
    instead proceeded by way of a proposed stipulated judgment that
    specified a disposition on the merits and that required the affirmative
    approval of the bankruptcy court.
    22                       YORK V. USA
    The remaining crucial consideration identified by the
    Baker Court was that the plaintiffs’ tactic in that case would
    “severely undermine[]” the court of appeals’ gatekeeping
    role under Rule 23(f) and, relatedly, the Supreme Court’s
    authority, by such rules, to allow specified categories of
    interlocutory appeals under 
    28 U.S.C. § 1292
    (e). 582 U.S.
    at 30–31, 40 (citation omitted). No such evasion or
    undermining of federal statutes or rules is presented here.
    The IRS argues that the stipulated judgment here would
    defeat the objectives of Federal Rule of Civil Procedure Rule
    56—which generally applies in adversary proceedings in
    bankruptcy court, see FED. R. BANKR. P. 7056—by
    “undermin[ing] the district court’s discretion to send a case
    to trial if the judge has doubt as to the wisdom of terminating
    the case before trial.” General Signal Corp. v. MCI
    Telecomms. Corp., 
    66 F.3d 1500
    , 1507 (9th Cir. 1995)
    (citation and internal quotation marks omitted). We reject
    this contention, because the IRS takes this comment out of
    context and thereby misconstrues its meaning.
    Although its exact phrasing has varied over the years,
    Rule 56 has long been phrased in mandatory terms that
    require a court to grant summary judgment if the movant
    makes the necessary showing. See FED. R. CIV. P. 56(a)
    (stating that “[t]he court shall grant summary judgment if the
    movant shows” what the rule requires (emphasis added));
    FED. R. CIV. P. 56(c) (2006 ed.) (stating that “[t]he judgment
    sought shall be rendered forthwith” if the requisite showing
    is made (emphasis added)). Although the word “shall” was
    changed to “should” in 2007 as part of an overall restyling
    of the federal rules that was “intended to be stylistic only,”
    see FED. R. CIV. P. 56, advis. comm. note (2007 amend.), it
    was promptly changed back in 2010. As the Advisory
    Committee explained, the 2007 change had been a mistake:
    YORK V. USA                         23
    “Eliminating ‘shall’ created an unacceptable risk of
    changing the summary-judgment standard. Restoring ‘shall’
    avoids the unintended consequences of any other word.” See
    FED. R. CIV. P. 56, advis. comm. note (2010 amend.).
    Given Rule 56’s mandatory language, if there is no
    genuine issue of material fact and the movant is entitled to
    judgment as a matter of law, the court lacks “discretion” to
    insist that, in defiance of Rule 56, a trial will be held anyway.
    As the Supreme Court has explained, “the plain language”
    of Rule 56 “mandates the entry of summary judgment, after
    adequate time for discovery and upon motion, against a party
    who fails to make a showing sufficient to establish the
    existence of an element essential to that party’s case, and on
    which that party will bear the burden of proof at trial.”
    Celotex Corp. v. Catrett, 
    477 U.S. 317
    , 322 (1986)
    (emphasis added). Against this backdrop, our comment in
    General Signal—contrary to what the dissent contends—did
    not signify endorsement of any such non-existent
    “discretion” to defy Rule 56 but instead used that term more
    loosely in recognizing that, although summary judgment
    motions ultimately raise questions of law reviewed de novo,
    they often involve fact-intensive evaluations as to whether
    the demanding standards of Rule 56 have been met. See
    Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc., 
    477 U.S. 242
    , 250, 255
    (1986) (reaffirming that, while “Rule 56(c) provides that the
    trial judge shall then grant summary judgment” if the
    requisite showing is made, courts should act “with caution”
    in granting summary judgment and should deny summary
    judgment when, under the Rule’s standards, “the better
    course would be to proceed to a full trial”). And, as
    Anderson notes, see 
    477 U.S. at
    250 n.5, Rule 56 motions
    also may require the preliminary exercise of discretionary
    judgment as to whether there has been a sufficient
    24                       YORK V. USA
    opportunity for discovery at the time the motion is made.
    See FED. R. CIV. P. 56(d). Here, neither side contended that
    more discovery was needed, and the IRS is therefore wrong
    in suggesting that the bankruptcy court had discretion to
    deny York’s summary judgment motion even if York made
    the showing required by Rule 56. The stipulated judgment
    in this case therefore did not contravene or undermine any
    policy of Rule 56.
    The parties have not identified any other statutory or
    rules-based policy that would be undermined by the
    stipulated judgment here. To be sure, York could have asked
    the district court to hear a discretionary appeal of the denial
    of his summary judgment motion under 
    28 U.S.C. § 158
    (a)(3), and in that sense his request for a stipulated
    judgment arguably evaded the district court’s discretionary
    gatekeeping authority. But in contrast to the genuinely
    interlocutory appeal authorized by § 158(a)(3), York’s
    appeal after the stipulated judgment creates no possibility
    that he could return to his earlier, pretrial interlocutory
    posture. See supra at 21. The opposite was true of the Baker
    plaintiffs’ evasion of Rule 23(f), and it was that critical
    feature that “severely undermined” “Rule 23(f)’s careful
    calibration.” 582 U.S. at 40 (citation omitted). York’s
    appeal thus does not resemble an unauthorized interlocutory
    appeal; on the contrary, it has all the features of an appeal
    from a “final” judgment. Cf. Rodriguez v. Taco Bell Corp.,
    
    896 F.3d 952
    , 955 (9th Cir. 2018) (stating that “a voluntary
    dismissal of remaining claims can render the earlier
    interlocutory order appealable, so long as the discretionary
    regime of Rule 23(f) is not undermined”).
    Our recent decision in Trendsettah USA, Inc. v. Swisher
    Int’l, Inc., 
    31 F.4th 1124
     (9th Cir. 2022), confirms that Baker
    does not preclude our exercise of jurisdiction here. In
    YORK V. USA                        25
    Trendsettah, the district court entered judgment on a jury
    verdict in favor of plaintiff Trendsettah, but thereafter the
    district court granted the defendant’s motion to set aside that
    judgment under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 60(b). 
    Id.
    at 1128–30. After Trendsettah unsuccessfully sought
    reconsideration of that Rule 60(b) ruling and certification of
    an appeal under 
    28 U.S.C. § 1292
    (b), Trendsettah “filed a
    motion to voluntarily dismiss its claims with prejudice to
    take an immediate appeal of the district court’s orders.” 
    Id. at 1130
    . The district court granted that motion, and
    Trendsettah appealed. 
    Id.
     We rejected the defendant’s
    argument that this tactic did not produce a final, appealable
    judgment under Baker. We explained that, unlike the
    plaintiffs in Baker:
    Trendsettah is not attempting to take an
    appeal midstream, such that success on
    appeal would allow it to continue litigating its
    claims in a preferred posture or forum.
    Trendsettah’s claims have already been
    litigated and a final decision on those claims
    has been reached. Thus, however we decide
    this appeal, the case will be over—either the
    jury’s prior verdict will be reinstated or the
    district court’s dismissal of Trendsettah’s
    claims with prejudice will stand.
    
    Id. at 1132
     (emphasis added). We further noted that, unlike
    Baker, Trendsettah’s appeal would not undermine any policy
    set forth in statutes or rules. 
    Id.
     at 1131–32 (similarly
    distinguishing Langere v. Verizon Wireless Servs., LLC, 
    983 F.3d 1115
     (9th Cir. 2020), in which the plaintiff attempted
    to use voluntary dismissal to evade the statutory bar on
    appealing orders compelling arbitration). And we also
    26                       YORK V. USA
    concluded that the district court’s “involvement in the
    voluntary dismissal” weighed in favor of the finality of the
    judgment. 
    Id. at 1132
     (quoting Galaza v. Wolf, 
    954 F.3d 1267
    , 1272 (9th Cir. 2020)). As our earlier discussion makes
    clear, each of these reasons for distinguishing Baker is
    applicable here: regardless of how we rule on the appeal, the
    case is over and will not be revived in the lower courts; York
    is not evading any statutory or rules-based policy; and the
    bankruptcy court agreed to enter the stipulated judgment.
    See supra at 21–26 & n.5. Under Trendsettah, Baker poses
    no obstacle to our jurisdiction here.
    2
    The last question is whether there is any remaining sense
    in which York’s acquiescence to the adverse judgment
    precludes his appeal. The answer is no.
    “The normal rule is that a party cannot appeal from an
    order which it consented to have entered against it.”
    Christian Sci. Reading Room Jointly Maintained v. City &
    Cnty. of San Francisco, 
    784 F.2d 1010
    , 1017 (9th Cir.), as
    amended, 
    792 F.2d 124
     (9th Cir. 1986). By agreeing to the
    entry of an adverse judgment, a party necessarily gives up
    the ability to raise on appeal “any errors that may be assigned
    which were in law waived by the consent.” Pacific R.R. v.
    Ketchum, 
    101 U.S. 289
    , 295 (1880). But we have held that
    the normal rule against appealing a consent judgment does
    not apply where the objective circumstances make “clear”
    that the party acquiescing in the adverse consent judgment
    “intended to preserve its right [to] appeal” an earlier adverse
    order that merges into that judgment and that, if reversed on
    appeal, would require vacatur or reversal of that judgment.
    Christian Sci. Reading Room, 784 F.2d at 1017. That is the
    case here.
    YORK V. USA                        27
    The IRS affirmatively—and correctly—concedes that
    the record makes unambiguously clear that York’s consent
    to the entry of the adverse judgment in this case was subject
    to his express reservation of any rights to appeal he retained.
    Cf. Gatto v. Comm’r, 
    1 F.3d 826
    , 828 (9th Cir. 1993)
    (declining to “entertain the Gattos’ argument that their
    consent was conditioned upon the oral assurance of the
    Commissioner’s counsel that they would retain the right to
    appeal” when nothing in the record of the district court
    supported that assertion, which was “raised for the first time
    on appeal”); Tapper v. Comm’r, 
    766 F.2d 401
    , 403 (9th Cir.
    1985) (holding that the record failed to show that the
    appellants’ consent to an adverse judgment did not extend to
    the issues sought to be raised on appeal).
    Moreover, contrary to what the dissent suggests, this is
    not a case in which York’s reservation of a right to appeal
    the consent judgment must be deemed “in law” to be
    fundamentally inconsistent with his consent and thereby
    necessarily waived by it. Pacific R.R., 
    101 U.S. at 295
    .
    York’s position was that the case should have ended in his
    favor at summary judgment based on the parties’ agreement
    as to the underlying facts. It is neither logically nor legally
    inconsistent with that position to say that, if the bankruptcy
    court was wrongly going to insist on continued litigation of
    the matter, the outcome of that fundamentally flawed
    endeavor should be deemed, in accordance with the
    bankruptcy court’s order, to have been an adverse judgment
    based on those same agreed-upon facts.               See, e.g.,
    Comsource Indep. Foodservice Cos., Inc. v. Union Pac. R.R.
    Co., 
    102 F.3d 438
    , 441–42 (9th Cir. 1996) (reviewing, on
    appeal from a stipulated judgment on the merits, the district
    court’s earlier denial of a summary judgment motion that
    had sought dismissal based on the statute of limitations). To
    28                           YORK V. USA
    be sure, had those proceedings actually occurred, they would
    then have triggered the Ortiz rule and barred review of the
    earlier summary judgment denial, but as we explained
    earlier, there is no predicate for invoking that rule when no
    such trial actually occurs. And as our discussion of Baker
    makes clear, there is no basis here for concluding that York’s
    reservation of a right to appeal the earlier summary judgment
    denial is so contrary to the policies of the statutes and federal
    rules that, despite that reservation, he must be deemed in law
    to have forfeited it. 6
    The dissent insists that Comsource is distinguishable on
    this point, but that is wrong. In Comsource, a food service
    company sued the defendant railroad in connection with a
    shipment of produce that was damaged while being
    transported by the railroad. 102 F.3d at 440–41. After the
    district court denied the railroad’s motion seeking summary
    judgment on statute of limitations grounds, the railroad
    ultimately stipulated to a judgment in the plaintiff’s favor,
    6
    This situation also differs from one in which a plaintiff effectively
    attempts to bait the district court into committing error—e.g., by
    provoking the court to dismiss the case for failure to prosecute—so that,
    in the ensuing appeal challenging the dismissal for failure to prosecute,
    the plaintiff (if successful in setting aside that independent ground for
    dismissal) can then also seek review of wholly unrelated issues earlier
    in the case. Cf. Ash v. Cvetkov, 
    739 F.2d 493
    , 497–98 (9th Cir. 1984)
    (affirming dismissal for failure to prosecute and declining to consider
    additional interlocutory rulings, even though dismissal was without
    prejudice and issues might arise again); James v. Price Stern Sloan, Inc.,
    
    283 F.3d 1064
    , 1067 (9th Cir. 2002) (describing Ash as a case involving
    “unquestionably a manipulation of appellate process”); compare United
    States v. Procter & Gamble Co., 
    356 U.S. 677
    , 680–81 (1958) (holding
    that, although Government suggested dismissal as a sanction for its
    refusal to comply with a challenged court order, Government could
    challenge that underlying order in ensuing appeal of dismissal).
    YORK V. USA                        29
    while reserving its right to appeal the denial of summary
    judgment. Id. at 441. We held that the denial of summary
    judgment was properly reviewable on the railroad’s appeal
    from the stipulated judgment, because the railroad had
    expressly “reserved the right to appeal the denial of
    summary judgment.” Id. at 442 (citing Smigiel v. Aetna Cas.
    & Surety Co., 
    785 F.2d 922
     (11th Cir. 1986)). According to
    the dissent, Comsource does not apply here because the
    stipulated judgment in Comsource assertedly involved only
    the railroad’s acquiescence in an adverse “merits
    determination,” and it therefore did not entail an implicit
    stipulation to adverse facts concerning the statute of
    limitations. See Dissent at 43 (emphasis added). The
    dissent’s proffered distinction is factually incorrect, as our
    opinion in Comsource makes clear. In reviewing the denial
    of summary judgment to the railroad, we expressly
    addressed whether there was a triable issue of material fact
    with respect to the statute of limitations issue and ultimately
    held that there was. Id. at 444. Under the dissent’s theory
    that a stipulation to an adverse judgment necessarily
    stipulates to the correctness of all of the underlying facts
    necessary to support it, the railroad in Comsource
    necessarily stipulated to the facts needed to defeat its
    summary judgment defense and therefore could not
    challenge on appeal whether there was in any respect a
    triable issue of material fact as to its limitation defense.
    Nonetheless, contrary to the dissent’s position, Comsource
    proceeded to squarely address that very question whether
    there was a triable issue of material fact that could be
    resolved in the plaintiff’s favor.
    Finally, this is not a case in which York’s acquiescence
    to the stipulated judgment destroys the adversity required to
    establish the “‘case’ or ‘controversy’” required by Article
    30                       YORK V. USA
    III. See Baker, 582 U.S. at 44–45 (Thomas, J., concurring in
    the judgment). York did not acquiesce to a judgment that
    necessarily forfeited all relief, thereby leaving the parties
    non-adverse. On the contrary, as we have explained, York’s
    consent to the judgment was subject to his reservation of
    whatever right he had to appeal the court’s earlier refusal to
    enter a different judgment. A favorable ruling on that
    substantive issue in this ensuing appeal would require
    vacatur of that stipulated judgment and entry of the different
    judgment that had been denied to York. That creates
    sufficient adversity to allow us to decide whether, as a matter
    of statute, York has a right to such an appeal and, if he does,
    to decide its merits. Because York otherwise does have a
    right to such an appeal, Article III interposes no obstacle to
    our proceeding to the merits.
    III
    We turn then, at last, to the merits of the bankruptcy
    court’s denial of summary judgment. “We review de novo
    the district court’s judgment in the appeal from the
    bankruptcy court, and apply the same de novo standard of
    review the district court used to review the bankruptcy
    court’s” ruling denying summary judgment. Suncrest
    Healthcare Ctr. LLC v. Omega Healthcare Investors, Inc.
    (In re Raintree Healthcare Corp.), 
    431 F.3d 685
    , 687 (9th
    Cir. 2005). To be entitled to summary judgment against the
    IRS, York had to show that, viewing the summary judgment
    record in the light most favorable to the IRS, a rational trier
    of fact could not “reasonably find” in the IRS’s favor under
    the “governing law.” Anderson, 
    477 U.S. at 254
    . The
    bankruptcy court correctly concluded that York had failed to
    make that showing.
    YORK V. USA                        31
    A
    The IRS’s claim against York rested on § 6672(a) of the
    Internal Revenue Code, which provides, in relevant part:
    Any person required to collect, truthfully
    account for, and pay over any tax imposed by
    this title who willfully fails to collect such
    tax, or truthfully account for and pay over
    such tax, or willfully attempts in any manner
    to evade or defeat any such tax or the
    payment thereof, shall, in addition to other
    penalties provided by law, be liable to a
    penalty equal to the total amount of the tax
    evaded, or not collected, or not accounted for
    and paid over.
    I.R.C. § 6672(a). Among the taxes that a person might be
    required to collect and then pay over are “federal income and
    social security taxes” that must be withheld by employers
    “from the wages of their employees.” Purcell v. United
    States, 
    1 F.3d 932
    , 936 (9th Cir. 1993); see also I.R.C.
    § 3402 (describing withholding requirements). A “person
    required to collect, truthfully account for, and pay over” such
    a tax, see I.R.C. § 6672(a), “includes an officer or employee
    of a corporation, or a member or employee of a partnership,
    who as such officer, employee, or member is under a duty to
    perform the act in respect of which the violation occurs,” id.
    § 6671(b). Such an individual is commonly referred to as a
    “responsible person,” although the statute itself does not
    employ that phrase.         Using that shorthand, we can
    summarize the statutory criteria for imposing such a penalty
    on an individual such as York as follows: (1) the individual
    qualifies as a “responsible person”; (2) the individual
    32                      YORK V. USA
    “fail[ed] to collect” or “account for and pay over such tax”;
    and (3) the individual acted willfully in doing so. I.R.C.
    § 6672(a); see also Purcell, 
    1 F.3d at 936
    .
    Once such a penalty has been assessed, the individual
    challenging it “bears the burden of proving by a
    preponderance of the evidence” that one or more of these
    required elements “is not present.” United States v. Jones,
    
    33 F.3d 1137
    , 1139 (9th Cir. 1994) (citation omitted).
    Accordingly, to defeat the IRS’s assessment of penalties
    against York (which was the basis of its claim in
    bankruptcy), York had to show that, at least as to one such
    element, no reasonable trier of fact could find in the IRS’s
    favor. York does not dispute that the relevant 2007 payroll
    taxes were not paid over, but he does contend that no rational
    trier of fact could find that he was a “responsible” person or
    that he had acted willfully. As explained in the next two
    sections, we disagree on both counts.
    B
    In identifying the person “responsible” for the payment
    of withholding taxes, we have said that we look to whether
    a person “had the final word as to what bills should or should
    not be paid, and when.” Purcell, 1 F.3d at 936 (quoting
    Wilson v. United States, 
    250 F.2d 312
    , 316 (9th Cir. 1958)).
    But our use of the word “final” is a bit of a misnomer,
    because we have clarified that, in this context, “[t]he final
    word does not mean ‘final’” in the sense of the ultimate
    authority in the corporate hierarchy. Jones, 
    33 F.3d at 1139
    .
    Rather, the “crucial examination is whether a person had the
    effective power to pay taxes,” such that the person could
    have made a decision that the taxes be paid. Purcell, 
    1 F.3d at 937
     (citations and internal quotation marks omitted). If
    “the scope and nature of an individual’s power to determine
    YORK V. USA                        33
    how the corporation conducts its financial affairs” gives that
    individual “authority to pay or to order the payment of
    delinquent taxes,” then that person is a responsible person
    under § 6672(a). Id. What matters is that the “individual
    had the authority required to exercise significant control
    over the corporation’s financial affairs, regardless of
    whether he exercised such control in fact.” Id. (emphasis
    added); see also Jones, 
    33 F.3d at 1139
    . So long as that
    standard is met, it is “irrelevant” that “an individual’s day-
    to-day function in a given enterprise is unconnected to
    financial decision making or tax matters.” Purcell, 
    1 F.3d at 937
    .
    We conclude that, under this standard, a reasonable trier
    of fact could readily find that York was a responsible person.
    The summary judgment record included evidence showing
    that York was the CFO of the Company; that he had the
    authority to sign checks for the Company; that he had
    physical custody of the Company’s checks; and that the
    Company’s “Approval Matrix” for financial transactions
    expressly stated that York had the authority to pay taxes up
    to $50,000. See supra at 7. Relying on this evidence, a trier
    of fact could reasonably conclude that York had sufficient
    “significant control over the corporation’s financial affairs”
    that he could have paid or ordered the payment of the
    delinquent taxes. Purcell, 
    1 F.3d at 937
    . Indeed, when a
    prior payroll tax deficiency problem had arisen in 2004,
    York reported to the Company’s Board of Directors
    concerning the matter, took steps to resolve the deficiency,
    and told Wolverton that no payroll checks were to be paid
    “unless the payroll taxes would have been paid over.”
    Because “the duty to ensure that withheld employment taxes
    are paid over [to the IRS] flows from the authority that
    34                       YORK V. USA
    enables one to do so,” 
    id.,
     York could reasonably be found,
    on this record, to be a responsible person.
    In arguing to the contrary, York emphasizes that,
    functionally, his check-writing authority was “ministerial”;
    that he was “not authorized to make the decisions as to which
    bills would get paid”; that Wolverton exercised the day-to-
    day responsibility for making tax payments; and that Latty,
    as president and CEO, “had final approval of all payments.”
    York relies further on the fact that his duties were limited
    under the bylaws, which provided that the CFO “was to act
    under and subject to the direction of the President, and was
    only authorized to disburse funds ‘as may be ordered by the
    President or the Board of Directors.’” But none of these
    points, individually or collectively, would necessarily
    preclude a reasonable trier of fact from concluding that York
    had the requisite authority.
    The Board of Directors had approved the “Approval
    Matrix” that gave both York and Wolverton authority to pay
    taxes up to specified amounts, and York conceded below that
    this matrix gave Wolverton the authority to pay tax and
    payroll-related obligations, “without the need to secure other
    approvals.” A rational factfinder could conclude that the
    matrix gave York comparable authority. Moreover, the fact
    that Wolverton typically handled such matters on a day-to-
    day basis does not establish that York lacked such authority.
    “More than one individual may be a responsible person
    within a given entity,” see Brounstein v. United States, 
    979 F.2d 952
    , 955 (3d Cir. 1992), and “liability attaches to all
    those under the duty set forth in the statute,” Purcell, 
    1 F.3d at 937
     (quoting Thomsen v. United States, 
    887 F.2d 12
    , 17
    (1st Cir. 1989)). In assessing whether York is one such
    person, what matters is the “scope and nature of [his] power
    to determine how the corporation conducts its financial
    YORK V. USA                         35
    affairs,” and not whether such payments fall within his “day-
    to-day function” in the Company. Purcell, 
    1 F.3d at 937
    ; see
    also 
    id.
     (stating that, so long as the person has the requisite
    control, it is irrelevant “whether he exercised such control in
    fact”). For the reasons we have explained, York could
    reasonably be found to have the relevant authority within the
    Company, even if he typically did not initiate payments. Cf.
    Alsheskie v. United States, 
    31 F.3d 837
    , 839 (9th Cir. 1994)
    (holding that district court did not clearly err in finding that
    Alsheskie was not a “responsible person” given that controls
    arising from the company’s unique financing arrangement
    “precluded Alsheskie from paying the Corporation’s tax
    obligations” (emphasis added) (citation omitted)).
    York is likewise wrong in contending that Latty’s
    ultimate authority to make final decisions concerning
    payments—an authority that he often abused—precludes a
    finding that York had “significant control over the
    corporation’s financial affairs.” Purcell, 1 F.3d at 937. As
    we have explained, see supra at 32–33, our cases have not
    referred to “final” authority to make payments in the narrow
    sense of referring only to the person at the apex of corporate
    decisionmaking; instead, the question is whether the person
    possesses the necessary “authority to pay or to order the
    payment of delinquent taxes.” Purcell, 
    1 F.3d at 937
    . Given
    that a rational trier of fact could conclude that the Approval
    Matrix gave York authority to pay the delinquent taxes
    without the need for Latty’s advance approval, York’s
    remaining arguments on this score necessarily rest on the
    premise that, as a functional matter, York would have felt
    obligated to run the matter by his tyrannical CEO. But the
    fact that York might have hesitated to “exercise[] such
    control in fact,” provides no basis for him to evade the
    responsibility that came from his authority within the
    36                        YORK V. USA
    Company. 
    Id.
     Indeed, even if Latty had purported to instruct
    York not to pay the taxes, a reasonable trier of fact could still
    find, on this record, that York was a responsible person. See
    
    id.
     (“Instructions from a superior not to pay taxes do not take
    a person otherwise responsible under section 6672(a) out of
    that category.” (simplified)).
    C
    We further conclude that a trier of fact could reasonably
    determine that York acted willfully.
    We have defined willfulness, for purposes of § 6672, as
    “a voluntary, conscious and intentional act to prefer other
    creditors over the United States.” Purcell, 
    1 F.3d at 938
    (quoting Davis v. United States, 
    961 F.2d 867
    , 871 (9th Cir.
    1992)). “An intent to defraud the Government or other bad
    motive need not be proven.” Rykoff v. United States, 
    40 F.3d 305
    , 307 (9th Cir. 1994). Indeed, “conduct motivated by
    reasonable cause, such as meeting the payroll, may be
    ‘willful.’” Phillips v. U.S. I.R.S., 
    73 F.3d 939
    , 942 (9th Cir.
    1996). “[F]or nonpayment to be willful there must be either
    knowledge of nonpayment or reckless disregard of whether
    the payments were being made.” Teel v. United States, 
    529 F.2d 903
    , 905 (9th Cir. 1976). Under these standards, a
    factfinder could reasonably conclude that York acted
    willfully.
    In arguing to the contrary, York emphasizes that it was
    undisputed that he did not have actual knowledge of the
    payroll tax deficiency until August 2007, by which time, he
    contends, Latty controlled all payment decisions. But we
    have held that willfulness may be established within the
    meaning of § 6672(a) even in the absence of actual
    knowledge of the tax deficiency: “‘[R]eckless disregard’ of
    whether the taxes are being paid over, as distinguished from
    YORK V. USA                         37
    actual knowledge of whether they are being paid over, may
    suffice to establish willfulness.” Phillips, 73 F.3d at 942; see
    also Teel, 
    529 F.2d at 905
    . Here, York was aware that the
    Company had previously failed to pay over payroll taxes in
    2004. He reported on that subject to the Board of Directors
    and worked with the IRS to resolve the matter in 2005. York
    also testified that, throughout his tenure, the Company
    “always had financial difficulty” and “lived hand to mouth.”
    Those problems became worse in 2007, and by June of that
    year, the Company stopped paying York, Latty, and
    Wolverton. A rational trier of fact could conclude from this
    evidence that York “preferred ignorance,” Sorenson v.
    United States, 
    521 F.2d 325
    , 329 (9th Cir. 1975), and that he
    acted in reckless disregard of whether the payroll taxes were
    being paid over to the IRS. See Phillips, 73 F.3d at 942
    (stating that, where the company’s chief executive “knew
    that the controller had once failed in the past to pay over the
    withholding taxes, and the chief executive did nothing to
    prevent a recurrence, that was willfulness as a matter of law”
    (citing United States v. Leuschner, 
    336 F.2d 246
    , 248 (9th
    Cir. 1964))). And a reasonable factfinder could further
    conclude that, once York acquired actual knowledge that the
    taxes were not being paid, he willfully failed to take any
    steps to pay them or to see that they were paid. See
    Leuschner, 
    336 F.2d at 248
     (director’s “complete failure to
    do anything to see that [controller], or he himself, performed
    that duty, is, we think, as a matter of law, a ‘voluntary,
    conscious and intentional’ failure”).
    IV
    Because the bankruptcy court correctly denied York’s
    summary judgment motion, the district court properly
    affirmed the judgment against York.
    38                        YORK V. USA
    AFFIRMED.
    BERZON, Circuit Judge, dissenting:
    Richard York seeks to appeal the bankruptcy court’s
    fact-based denial of summary judgment. But after the
    summary judgment decision, York agreed to a stipulated
    final judgment in favor of his adversary, the Internal
    Revenue Service (“IRS”). In my view, the parties’
    agreement that the IRS would prevail at trial supersedes the
    bankruptcy court’s earlier decision to deny summary
    judgment and send the case to trial. As a result, the summary
    judgment denial is yesterday’s news, and York may not now
    appeal it. I therefore respectfully dissent.
    1. A fact-based denial of summary judgment is a
    procedural ruling that does not resolve any legal dispute or
    entail any liability determination. “[T]he denial of a motion
    for a summary judgment because of unresolved issues of fact
    does not settle or even tentatively decide anything about the
    merits of the claim. It is strictly a pretrial order that decides
    only one thing—that the case should go to trial.” Switz.
    Cheese Ass’n, Inc. v. E. Horne’s Mkt., Inc., 
    385 U.S. 23
    , 25
    (1966).
    Given their nature, denials of summary judgment on
    factual grounds are a species of interim rulings that are
    “unreviewable after final judgment because they are
    overcome by later developments in the litigation.” Dupree
    v. Younger, 
    598 U.S. 729
    , 734 (2023). “Once the case
    proceeds to trial, the full record developed in court
    supersedes the record existing at the time of the summary-
    judgment motion.” Ortiz v. Jordan, 
    562 U.S. 180
    , 184
    YORK V. USA                        39
    (2011); see also Dupree, 598 U.S. at 734. At that point, “a
    district court’s assessment of the facts based on the
    summary-judgment record becomes ‘ancient history and [is]
    not subject to appeal.’ ” Dupree, 598 U.S. at 734 (citation
    omitted). After a trial, the order denying summary judgment
    “retains its interlocutory character as simply a step along the
    route to final judgment.” Ortiz, 
    562 U.S. at 184
    . The bottom
    line is that, in contrast to denials of summary judgment based
    on matters of law, “factual issues addressed in summary-
    judgment denials are unreviewable on appeal.” Dupree, 598
    U.S. at 735.
    2. The majority’s decision to the contrary stresses the
    “full record” language in Ortiz, 
    562 U.S. at 184
    , and Dupree,
    598 U.S. at 734, concluding that so long as there was no
    superseding trial record that could be said to displace the
    earlier summary judgment record, the earlier fact-based
    denial of summary judgment merges into the final judgment
    and, ordinarily, can be reviewed on appeal. See Majority Op.
    at 16–17. The majority reasons that because there was no
    trial here, there was no superseding trial record, and the
    summary judgment denial is therefore appealable. Id.
    The majority’s conclusion that a fact-based summary
    judgment denial is reviewable so long as there is no actual
    trial record has some basis in snippets of language in Ortiz
    and Dupree. But, after careful consideration of those two
    Supreme Court opinions and of the finality principle
    underpinning them, I am in the end unpersuaded by the
    majority’s conclusion that we can review the denial of
    summary judgment on appeal from the stipulated judgment.
    On my reading, Dupree, interpreting Ortiz, draws a firm
    line between fact-based denials of summary judgment and
    law-based denials. As Dupree explained, although “factual
    40                       YORK V. USA
    issues addressed in summary-judgment denials are
    unreviewable on appeal, the same is not true of purely legal
    issues—that is, issues that can be resolved without reference
    to any disputed facts.” 598 U.S. at 735. Law-based
    summary judgment denials are appealable after a final
    judgment “[b]ecause a district court's purely legal
    conclusions at summary judgment are not ‘supersede[d]’ by
    later developments in the litigation.” Id. (citation omitted);
    see also id. at 736 (“A district court’s resolution of a pure
    question of law . . . is unaffected by future developments in
    the case.”).
    Dupree and Ortiz make clear that a fact-based summary
    judgment denial is not appealable because it is a type of
    ruling that is “ ‘supersede[d]’ by later developments in the
    litigation,” without specifying that the later development
    must be an actual trial. Dupree, 598 U.S. at 735 (quoting
    Ortiz, 
    562 U.S. at 184
    ); see also id. at 734. The parties’
    stipulated judgment is precisely such a development.
    The bankruptcy court, in denying summary judgment,
    issued no order determining liability. Pursuant to that
    summary judgment ruling, neither party was yet entitled to
    judgment, and, in the ordinary course, a trial would have
    been necessary to determine liability. The parties, via their
    stipulated judgment, established that the record at trial, were
    there one, would result in a final judgment for the IRS. By
    entering into that stipulation, the parties effectively
    developed the facts beyond the summary judgment record.
    See Dupree, 598 U.S. at 734. The parties did so—that is,
    “superseded” the summary judgment denial “by later
    developments in the litigation,” id.—when they stipulated
    YORK V. USA                                41
    that the result of that trial would be that the IRS was entitled
    to judgment. 1
    It is true, of course, that there was no actual trial and the
    stipulated judgment does not detail the factual
    determinations upon which it is premised. But York’s
    consent to the judgment “is equivalent to an admission . . .
    on the record that the facts exist on which the decree rests.”
    Pac. R.R. v. Ketchum, 
    101 U.S. 289
    , 296 (1879). And we
    know that the necessary factual predicates for an IRS
    judgment would have to be that (1) York qualifies as a
    “responsible person” for purposes of collecting and paying
    the tax; (2) he “fail[ed] to collect” or “account for and pay
    over [the] tax”; and (3) he acted willfully in doing so. See
    I.R.C. § 6672(a); Majority Op. at 8–9, 31–32. The
    stipulation, therefore, is necessarily based on specific factual
    predicates that the district court ruled could not be
    determined on the summary judgment record.
    In light of the implicitly stipulated findings, the parties’
    agreement as to the outcome of a hypothetical trial, just like
    an actual trial, renders “a district court’s factual rulings
    based on the obsolete summary-judgment record . . .
    useless.” Dupree, 598 U.S. at 736. By determining the
    factual issues left open by the denial of summary judgment,
    the stipulation, together with the underlying factual premises
    it necessarily subsumes, supersedes the bankruptcy court’s
    earlier decision to send the case to trial by specifying the
    result of that trial. Accordingly, under Ortiz and Dupree, the
    1
    The majority insists that the stipulation, rather than reflecting the
    outcome of a hypothetical trial, instead reflects the parties’ agreement
    that on the same stipulated record considered on the summary judgment
    motions, the IRS would prevail. But as I later explain, if that is the case,
    then York has conceded the merits of his appeal. See infra at 8-9.
    42                        YORK V. USA
    earlier procedural ruling has lapsed and is not now
    reviewable.
    That the parties have chosen not to develop a detailed
    record underlying the implicitly stipulated factual findings
    cannot render the earlier summary judgment ruling
    appealable. Trial findings supersede an earlier fact-based
    summary judgment decision regardless of whether the trial
    transcript is in the appellate record. See Jones v. City of
    Santa Monica, 
    382 F.3d 1052
    , 1057 (9th Cir. 2004) (“By
    failing to provide a trial transcript, [the appellant] may not
    avoid our practice of not reviewing the denial of summary
    judgment when there has been a factual trial.”). Here, the
    parties have in effect stipulated to a trial record entitling the
    IRS to judgment; that they did not develop that record in an
    actual trial is irrelevant to whether the denial of summary
    judgment remains of any significance.
    In sum, the denial of summary judgment determined that
    there were factual issues that had to be resolved by later
    proceedings, and they were so resolved—through a
    stipulation as to the ultimate findings of fact. Under Ortiz
    and Dupree, the earlier ruling no longer has any significance
    to the final judgment in this case and is not appealable.
    3. Additionally, given that York has necessarily
    stipulated to the factual predicates supporting judgment for
    the IRS, I disagree with the majority’s assertion that York’s
    stipulation should not be deemed to be an abandonment of
    his challenge to the summary judgment denial. See Majority
    Op. at 27–28 (citing Comsource Indep. Foodservice Cos. v.
    Union Pac. R.R. Co., 
    102 F.3d 438
    , 442 (9th Cir. 1996)). A
    party whose assertion of error on appeal is inconsistent with
    a consent judgment is deemed to have waived the assertion
    of that error on appeal. See Pac. R.R., 
    101 U.S. at 295
    ;
    YORK V. USA                              43
    Majority Op. at 26. By agreeing to the stipulation, York
    voluntarily agreed to factual findings in favor of the IRS on
    the same fact questions at issue in his summary judgment
    appeal. Yet, for purposes of his summary judgment appeal,
    he takes a position on those fact issues at odds with the
    position to which he has stipulated.
    In concluding that the stipulation is not inconsistent with
    York’s position on appeal, the majority relies on Comsource,
    a case in which the parties stipulated to final judgment on the
    merits after the district court issued a summary judgment
    order rejecting a statute of limitations defense. Comsource,
    102 F.3d at 441; see Majority Op. at 27–29. The parties in
    Comsource stipulated to a final merits judgment in the
    plaintiff’s favor, allowing the defendant to appeal the
    logically prior and factually distinct statute of limitations
    ruling. See id. at 441–42. The defendant’s reservation of the
    right to appeal the limitations issue was not inconsistent with
    the position taken in the stipulation, because the appeal
    challenged the limitations ruling only, not the separate
    merits determination stipulated to after the district court
    resolved the limitations issue. 2
    2
    In responding to my discussion of Comsource, the majority emphasizes
    that the stipulation in that case must have “entail[ed] an implicit
    stipulation to adverse facts concerning the statute of limitations,”
    Majority Op. at 29 – a point relevant to the question whether the
    summary judgment record was superseded by a later-developed record
    under Ortiz and Dupree. But Comsource was decided long before Ortiz
    and Dupree, and so provides no support for the majority’s conclusion
    concerning the application of the rule set forth in those cases. Compare
    Comsource, 102 F.3d at 442 (“a denial of a summary judgment order is
    appealable after the entry of a final judgment”), with Dupree, 
    598 U.S. 44
                                YORK V. USA
    Here, in contrast, the bankruptcy court’s summary
    judgment order did not pre-determine any issue independent
    of the one that formed the basis for the parties’ stipulation.
    Instead, York elected to stipulate to factual predicates
    inconsistent with the position he now asserts on appeal. The
    majority cites no case in which a party has been permitted to
    appeal after stipulating to a judgment factually interwoven,
    as here, with the issues sought to be appealed.
    In the majority’s view, the stipulation reflects York’s
    agreement that, based on the undisputed summary judgment
    record, the IRS would prevail at the bench trial. Majority
    Op. at 27. If that is the case, then York’s agreement amounts
    to a concession that the IRS is entitled to judgment on the
    summary judgment record – a position directly inconsistent
    at 735 (“factual issues addressed in summary-judgment denials are
    unreviewable on appeal”).
    In any event, I addressed Comsource because it was cited in support
    of the majority’s conclusion that York should not be deemed to have
    waived his position on appeal, see Majority Op. at 27–28. As to that
    issue, the district court in Comsource decided the statute of limitations
    question against the appellant on a legal ground, concluding that under
    the applicable law, for the one-year limitations period to apply, the
    appellant was required to first offer the default two-year limitations
    period as an option; because the appellant had not done so, the district
    court denied the appellant’s summary judgment motion. Comsource,
    102 F.3d at 441–42. The parties’ stipulation to a merits judgment while
    reserving an appeal of the district court’s legal ruling on the statute of
    limitations was not logically inconsistent. That the court of appeals in
    Comsource subsequently chose to affirm the district court’s denial of
    summary judgment on a different ground – that there was a fact dispute
    on the question whether the appellant provided adequate notice that a
    one-year limitations period would apply – is irrelevant to whether the
    appellant’s stipulation was inconsistent with its reservation of the statute
    of limitations issue at the time it was made. It was not, unlike the
    situation here.
    YORK V. USA                        45
    with the position he now asserts on appeal. Under the
    majority’s approach, York has reserved his right to appeal,
    but he has conceded the merits of that appeal.
    4. My conclusions are reinforced by the practical
    concern that the majority’s decision undermines the trial
    court’s discretion to send a case to trial in the face of an
    underdeveloped record.        Gen. Signal Corp. v. MCI
    Telecomms. Corp., 
    66 F.3d 1500
     (9th Cir. 1995), explained
    that reviewing a fact-based summary judgment denial
    “would . . . undermine the district court’s discretion to send
    a case to trial ‘if the judge has doubt as to the wisdom of
    terminating the case before trial.’ ” 
    Id. at 1507
     (citation
    omitted); see also Jones, 
    382 F.3d at 1057
     (declining to
    review a fact-based summary judgment denial and
    explaining in part that “the preliminary ruling at summary
    judgment . . . may have been the result of some doubt on the
    part of the trial judge whether it was wise to terminate the
    case at an early stage”).
    The Supreme Court has long recognized that the trial
    court may “deny summary judgment . . . where there is
    reason to believe that the better course would be to proceed
    to a full trial.” Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc., 
    477 U.S. 242
    , 255 (1986) (citing Kennedy v. Silas Mason Co., 
    334 U.S. 249
     (1948)). In keeping with this principle, we have
    held that although Federal Rule of Procedure 56(c) speaks in
    mandatory terms, an appellate court may reverse a grant of
    summary judgment and remand a case for trial where the
    “record[] ha[s] not been sufficiently developed to allow the
    court[] to make [a] fully informed decision.” Anderson v.
    Hodel, 
    899 F.2d 766
    , 770–71 (9th Cir. 1990) (quoting
    Schwarzer, Summary Judgment Under the Federal Rules:
    Defining Genuine Issues of Material Fact, 
    99 F.R.D. 465
    ,
    475 (1984)); see also, e.g., United States ex rel. Plumbers &
    46                       YORK V. USA
    Steamfitters Loc. Union No. 38 v. C.W. Roen Constr. Co.,
    
    183 F.3d 1088
    , 1095 & n.3 (9th Cir. 1999); S & N Equip. Co.
    v. Casa Grande Cotton Fin. Co., 
    97 F.3d 337
    , 345 (9th Cir.
    1996); Tovar v. U.S. Postal Serv., 
    3 F.3d 1271
    , 1278–79 (9th
    Cir. 1993). Thus, notwithstanding the majority’s suggestion
    to the contrary, see Majority Op. at 22–24, the bankruptcy
    court had leeway to send the case to trial if the undisputed
    facts presented by the parties were inadequate in the court’s
    informed view to permit summary resolution. Respect for
    that discretion is another reason to doubt the majority’s
    approach.
    5. I recognize that the majority’s approach may make
    some practical sense. Strict application of the finality rules
    can lead to an unsatisfying rigidity in low-stakes cases like
    this one. It is understandable that, in cases in which the
    amount in controversy is less than the cost of a trial, the
    parties would prefer appeal of the denial of summary
    judgment over incurring the expense of trial. As a result of
    its advantages in low-stakes cases, the tactic York employed
    here could be, and probably will be, used by other litigants
    with little financially at stake to obtain review of fact-based
    summary judgment denials.
    Congress could, of course, revisit the application of the
    finality doctrine in circumstances such as these and allow the
    sort of stipulation and appeal undertaken here. Given the
    impracticality of funding a full trial that will cost more in
    attorney’s fees and costs than the amount of damages at
    stake, perhaps Congress should do just that. But it has not
    done so.
    ***
    The majority’s decision impermissibly permits an end
    run around the well-established finality doctrine. I would
    YORK V. USA                     47
    conclude that York’s appeal should fail because he may not
    appeal the bankruptcy court’s denial of summary judgment.
    I therefore respectfully dissent. I would not reach the
    remaining questions addressed in the majority opinion.