Estate of Phillips v. District of Columbia , 455 F.3d 397 ( 2006 )


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  •  United States Court of Appeals
    FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA CIRCUIT
    Argued January 9, 2006                 Decided August 1, 2006
    No. 03-7060
    ESTATE OF ANTHONY SEAN PHILLIPS, SR.,
    LYSA LAMBERT PHILLIPS, PERSONAL REPRESENTATIVE OF THE
    ESTATE OF ANTHONY SEAN PHILLIPS, SR., DECEASED,
    INDIVIDUALLY AND MOTHER AND NEXT BEST FRIEND OF
    ARZEL SHAMAR PHILLIPS AND ANTHONY SEAN PHILLIPS, JR.,
    MINORS, ET AL.,
    APPELLEES
    v.
    DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, A MUNICIPAL CORPORATION, ET AL.,
    APPELLEES
    DONALD EDWARDS,
    APPELLANT
    Appeal from the United States District Court
    for the District of Columbia
    (No. 00cv01113)
    Donna M. Murasky, Assistant Attorney General, for the
    District of Columbia, argued the cause for the appellant. Robert
    J. Spagnoletti, Attorney General, and Edward E. Schwab,
    Deputy Attorney General, for the District of Columbia, were on
    brief.
    2
    Ralph L. Lotkin argued the cause for the appellee. Joel M.
    Abramson was on brief.
    Before: HENDERSON, ROGERS and BROWN, Circuit Judges.
    Opinion for the court filed by Circuit Judge HENDERSON.
    KAREN LECRAFT HENDERSON, Circuit Judge: Two District
    of Columbia (D.C. or District) firefighters who were injured and
    the families of their two colleagues who died in a May 1999 fire
    (Firefighters) brought a civil rights action against the District
    and Donald Edwards, the former Chief of the D.C. Fire
    Department (Department). Edwards seeks interlocutory review
    of the district court’s denial of his motion to dismiss based on
    qualified immunity. We conclude that the district court erred in
    denying Edwards qualified immunity because the Firefighters
    did not allege the violation of a clearly established constitutional
    right; that is, even if Edwards’s failure to remedy the
    Department’s continuing violations of standard operating
    procedures amounted to conscience-shocking conduct, neither
    the District nor Edwards owed the Firefighters the “heightened
    obligation” required by our precedent and by the United States
    Supreme Court to impose an affirmative duty to protect them
    under the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment.
    Accordingly, we reverse the district court’s denial of Edwards’s
    motion to dismiss on the qualified immunity ground.
    I.
    Shortly after midnight on May 30, 1999, D.C. firefighters
    responded to a multi-alarm townhouse fire at 3146 Cherry Road
    N.E.1 Firefighter Anthony Sean Phillips Jr. entered the first
    1
    We take the background facts from the allegations of the
    complaint. See Wagener v. SBC Pension Benefit Plan, 
    407 F.3d 395
    , 401 (D.C. Cir. 2005) (on review of dismissal, we “accept[] the
    3
    floor with Lieutenant Frederick Cooper, the officer in charge of
    his engine company. Soon after entering the townhouse the two
    were separated and Cooper exited the building without Phillips.
    Meanwhile Lieutenant Charles Redding and firefighters Joseph
    Morgan and Louis J. Matthews, all three from a different engine
    company, also entered the burning building, unaware that
    Phillips and Cooper were inside. Battalion Chief Damian Wilk,
    the Incident Commander initially in charge of coordinating the
    Department’s efforts at the site, relied on a portable radio device
    rather than the stronger-signal mobile radio mounted in his
    vehicle that he could have used had he established a fixed
    command post. Wilk radioed Redding twice to locate his
    position but Redding, inside the house, never received the
    transmission. Soon another fire truck arrived and began
    ventilating the townhouse’s basement by breaking the rear
    basement sliding glass door.2 The truck improperly conducted
    the ventilation, resulting in a sudden temperature increase inside
    the structure. Superheated gases from the fire shot up the
    basement stairway to the first floor. Redding, still on the first
    floor and in the gases’ path, ran out of the house, his face and
    back burning. He told Battalion Chief Wilk that Matthews was
    still in the townhouse, unaware that Morgan and Phillips were
    still inside as well. Wilk did not order a rescue effort until 90
    factual allegations made in the complaint as true and giv[e] plaintiffs
    the benefit of all inferences that can reasonably be drawn from their
    allegations”).
    2
    Ventilation is the process by which firefighters remove a fire’s
    byproducts (such as heat, smoke and gas) to make a frontal attack on
    the fire itself. It usually involves breaking out closed windows in the
    burning structure, tearing out walls and, when a fire reaches the
    structure’s top floor, cutting holes in its roof. Webster’s Third New
    International Dictionary 2541 (8th ed. 1981).
    4
    seconds later, when Morgan exited the house suffering from
    severe burns. Seven minutes after the rescue effort began
    firefighters found Phillips severely burned and unconscious.
    Four minutes later they found Matthews in a similar state.
    Phillips died of his injuries 23 minutes after his removal from
    the townhouse. Matthews died of his injuries the following day.
    Morgan and Redding survived but suffered severe injuries.
    One year later Morgan, Redding and Phillips’s and
    Matthews’s families filed separate civil rights actions under 
    42 U.S.C. § 1983
     (section 1983) against the District, Edwards3 and
    three other Department officials, including Wilk and Cooper.4
    The Firefighters argued Edwards was deliberately indifferent to
    his duty to ensure that the Department complied with its own
    standard operating procedures (SOPs) and that his deliberately
    indifferent conduct deprived the Firefighters of their
    “constitutionally protected liberty, interests in life, personal
    security [and] bodily integrity” and of “substantive due process
    of law.” Phillips 1st Am. Compl. ¶ 79, Joint Appendix (JA) 65;
    Redding 1st Am. Compl. ¶ 28, JA 87. The Firefighters relied
    on, inter alia, the Department’s Reconstruction Report on the
    3
    Edwards was sued in both his individual capacity as Department
    chief and in his official capacity, i.e., as the Department. Phillips
    1st Am. Compl. ¶ 26, reprinted at Joint Appendix (JA) 47; Redding
    1st Am. Compl. ¶ 10, JA 83. See Will v. Mich. Dep’t of State
    Police, 
    491 U.S. 58
    , 71 (1989) (“[A] suit against a state official in
    his or her official capacity is not a suit against the official but rather
    is a suit against the official’s office. As such, it is no different from
    a suit against the State itself.” (internal citations omitted)).
    4
    The district court consolidated the four Firefighters’ cases.
    Subsequently the plaintiffs voluntarily dismissed their claims against
    Wilk. See Estate of Phillips v. District of Columbia, 355 F. Supp.
    2d. 212, 213 n.2 (D.D.C. 2005); see also infra note 6.
    5
    Cherry Road fire (Cherry Road report) that described numerous
    SOP violations that, they claimed, caused their respective
    injuries and deaths, including the Department’s failure to follow
    equipment backup and maintenance procedures, its failure to
    ventilate the townhouse properly and to coordinate personnel,
    Cooper’s failure to maintain required contact with and to locate
    Phillips and the Department’s failure to supply sufficient
    personnel to the scene. See Phillips 1st Am. Compl. ¶ 44, JA 53.
    The Firefighters also claimed that another report completed
    before the Cherry Road fire, namely an internal Reconstruction
    Report on the 1997 death of firefighter John Carter in a grocery
    store fire (Carter report), gave the defendants notice of the
    Department’s failure to follow SOPs. The Cherry Road report
    noted that the deficiencies in training, staffing, equipment and
    administration identified in the Carter report persisted and
    declared that “the Department must no longer tolerate the notion
    that SOPs and proper fireground behaviors are only important
    for ‘major’ fires and not as important for ‘routine’ fires.” Id. ¶
    44, JA 53 (quoting Cherry Road report). The Firefighters
    claimed that the Department’s “policy and custom not to
    implement recommendations to improve operation of the
    [Department] or to enforce [SOPs] was conscious, knowing, and
    deliberate and not the result of simple or negligent oversight
    made under emergency, spur of the moment conditions without
    either the opportunity or time for deliberation” and, as such, was
    “an affirmative election of a specific course of action.” Id. ¶ 65,
    JA 62. Regarding Edwards, the Firefighters alleged that he was
    required to comply with the “operational mandates of the D.C.
    Fire Department,” and his failure to do so constituted a “de facto
    policy and custom of the District of Columbia of a deliberate
    indifference to such matters,” id. ¶ 64, JA 61–62. Edwards’s
    conduct was “egregious and shock[ed] the conscience” and
    constituted “deliberate indifference to the [Firefighters’] clearly
    established rights.” Id. ¶¶ 67, 68, JA 62.
    6
    The District moved to dismiss the Firefighters’ complaint
    under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 12(b)(6), arguing that it
    failed to state a claim under section 1983. See Def. District of
    Columbia’s Mot. to Dismiss Pl.’s Am. Compl., D.D.C. No. 00-
    cv-01113, R. Doc. 39. Edwards joined the District’s motion and
    also asserted his qualified immunity from suit in his individual
    capacity.5 See Notice of Filing, D.D.C. No. 00-cv-01113, R.
    Doc. 52. The district court denied the motion, Estate of Phillips
    v. District of Columbia, 
    257 F. Supp. 2d 69
     (D.D.C. 2003)
    (Phillips I), concluding the Firefighters stated a substantive due
    process claim against the defendants. Because the Carter report
    had put the Department on notice of the “serious consequences
    that could result” from Edwards’s deliberate indifference to the
    enforcement of the Department SOPs, the court held that their
    complaint alleged conscience-shocking behavior under County
    of Sacramento v. Lewis, 
    523 U.S. 833
    , 847 (1998) (conscience-
    shocking conduct violates substantive due process). Phillips I,
    
    257 F. Supp. 2d at 79
    . It also denied Edwards qualified
    immunity in light of his “ongoing failure to institute corrective
    training or to follow [the Department’s] own rules even after the
    scathing reviews contained in a number of safety reports.” 
    Id. at 80
    . Based on the Carter report it was fair to assume, the
    district court stated, that Edwards and the other Department
    officials “had advance notice of the fatal pattern and practice of
    SOP violations within the Fire Department.” 
    Id.
     The court also
    concluded that the right to be free from “conscience-shocking
    executive action” was “clearly established” at the time of the fire
    because “the potential for deliberate indifference to [rise] to
    5
    A government official sued in his individual capacity is shielded
    from personal liability in a 1983 action if, at the time he acted, the
    constitutional right allegedly violated was not “clearly established.”
    Anderson v. Creighton, 
    483 U.S. 635
    , 640 (1987); Barham v.
    Ramsey, 
    434 F.3d 565
    , 572 (D.C. Cir. 2006).
    7
    such a level as to shock the conscience has been repeatedly
    recognized.” 
    Id.
    After the district court decided Phillips I, we issued two
    qualified immunity decisions, International Action Center v.
    United States, 
    365 F.3d 20
     (D.C. Cir. 2004) (IAC), and
    Fraternal Order of Police v. Williams, 
    375 F.3d 1141
     (D.C. Cir.
    2004) (FOP). The district court sua sponte ordered the parties
    to address the impact of those decisions on the Phillips I
    decision but, after reviewing the parties’ pleadings, it declined
    to modify it. Estate of Phillips v. District of Columbia, 
    355 F. Supp. 2d 212
     (D.D.C. 2005) (Phillips II). In IAC we reversed a
    district court decision denying qualified immunity to District
    police supervisory personnel for their alleged failure to properly
    train and supervise their officers, finding the district court’s
    analysis “failed to link the likelihood of particular constitutional
    violations to any past transgressions, and failed to link these
    particular supervisors to those past practices or any familiarity
    with them.” IAC, 
    365 F.3d at 27
    . In Phillips II the district court
    distinguished IAC, however, contrasting the claim there which,
    according to the court, was “too general to support the plaintiffs’
    theory of liability,” to the Cherry Road and Carter reports which
    put the defendants “on notice of specific circumstances and
    problems that, if not addressed, were almost certain to result in
    injury or death.” Phillips II, 
    355 F. Supp. 2d at 217, 218
    (emphases in original).6 The district court also found FOP
    distinguishable. In FOP correctional officers alleged that the
    District was deliberately indifferent to their safety and therefore
    violated their substantive due process right when it increased the
    6
    The Firefighters did, however, voluntarily dismiss Cooper from
    the litigation in light of IAC because he neither knew of nor was
    responsible for deficient training and enforcement. Phillips II, 355
    F. Supp. 2d. at 218 n.4.
    8
    inmate population at its Central Detention Facility while
    reducing the number of correctional officers assigned there. We
    found that the officers did not state a claim under section 1983
    because the District’s decision to take those actions was a
    “rational policy choice made amid competing resource demands
    and in the context of outside pressures,” including another
    facility’s closing and cuts in appropriations. 
    Id.
     at 221 (citing
    FOP, 
    375 F.3d at 1142
    ). Here, the Firefighters alleged that the
    District and Edwards “did nothing because they simply did not
    care,” id. at 222, and if that allegation were true, the district
    court found, “this deliberate indifference continues to shock this
    Court’s conscience and nothing in the FOP decision persuades
    this Court that its previous conclusion is flawed.” Id.
    The district court read another aspect of the FOP decision
    as “present[ing] a more difficult obstacle” to the
    Firefighters—our statement that the “lower threshold” for
    meeting the shock the conscience test by showing deliberately
    indifferent as opposed to intentional conduct “applies only in
    ‘circumstances where the State has a heightened obligation
    toward the individual.’ ” Id. at 222, 220 (quoting FOP, 
    375 F.3d at
    1145–46). The FOP decision gave as an example of the type
    of claimant owed a “heightened obligation” a prison inmate, as
    distinguished from a corrections officer, to whom the state owed
    no heightened obligation under Washington v. District of
    Columbia, 
    802 F.2d 1478
     (D.C. Cir. 1986). FOP, 
    375 F.3d at
    1146 (citing Washington, 
    802 F.2d at 1482
    ). Despite the
    Firefighters’ status as voluntary public employees, however, the
    district court applied the heightened obligation requirement
    because, under 
    D.C. Code § 5-407
    (a), they were not free to
    resign their positions “without the mayor’s permission and one-
    month’s notice.” Phillips II, 355 F. Supp. 2d. at 222. Given this
    restriction on District firefighters’ ability to resign, the district
    court found “the firefighter’s employment comes closer to the
    heightened obligation standard than would the more common at-
    9
    will, voluntary employment situation.” 
    Id.
     Edwards filed an
    interlocutory appeal of the denial of the motion to dismiss on the
    qualified immunity ground. See Mitchell v. Forsyth, 
    472 U.S. 511
    , 530 (1985) (denial of motion for summary judgment on
    qualified immunity ground immediately appealable); IAC, 
    365 F.3d at 23
     (“[W]e have jurisdiction to hear interlocutory appeals
    from denials of qualified immunity—‘to the extent that [the
    denial] turns on an issue of law.’ ” (quoting Mitchell, 
    472 U.S. at 530
    ) (alteration in original)).
    II.
    Qualified immunity under section 1983 shields a state or
    local official from personal liability unless his action violated a
    “clearly established statutory or constitutional right[] of which
    a reasonable person would have known.” Harlow v. Fitzgerald,
    
    457 U.S. 800
    , 818 (1982). “A court evaluating a claim of
    qualified immunity must first determine whether the plaintiff
    has alleged the deprivation of an actual constitutional right at
    all.” Wilson v. Layne, 
    526 U.S. 603
    , 609 (1999) (quoting Conn
    v. Gabbert, 
    526 U.S. 286
    , 290 (1999)); see also Lewis, 
    523 U.S. at
    841 n.5 (same).7 Our review of the district court’s legal
    conclusions is de novo. Butera v. District of Columbia, 
    235 F.3d 637
    , 647 (D.C. Cir. 2001).
    7
    See Lewis, 
    523 U.S. at
    841 n.5 (“[T]he generally sound rule of
    avoiding determination of constitutional issues does not readily fit the
    situation presented here; when liability is claimed on the basis of a
    constitutional violation, even a finding of qualified immunity requires
    some determination about the state of constitutional law at the time
    the officer acted.”); cf. Kalka v. Hawk, 
    215 F.3d 97
    –99 (D.C. Cir.
    2000) (assuming arguendo violation of constitutional right to decide
    qualified immunity issue).
    10
    In determining whether a plaintiff states a substantive due
    process claim, the United States Supreme Court has “always
    been reluctant to expand the concept of substantive due process
    because guideposts for responsible decisionmaking in this
    unchartered area are scarce and open-ended.” Collins v. City of
    Harker Heights, 
    503 U.S. 115
    , 125 (1992) (citing Regents of
    Univ. of Mich. v. Ewing, 
    474 U.S. 214
    , 225–226 (1985)). It is
    therefore important, the Court went on, “to focus on the
    allegations in the complaint to determine how petitioner
    describes the constitutional right at stake and what the city
    allegedly did to deprive her . . . of that right.” 
    Id.
     To constitute
    a substantive due process violation, the defendant official’s
    behavior must be “so egregious, so outrageous, that it may fairly
    be said to shock the contemporary conscience.” Lewis, 
    523 U.S. at
    847 n.8; Collins, 
    503 U.S. at 128
     (only most egregious official
    conduct can be “arbitrary in a constitutional sense”); Butera, 
    235 F.3d at 651
     (requirement that state action be sufficiently
    egregious to shock conscience “exists to differentiate
    substantive due process, which is intended only to protect
    against arbitrary government action, from local tort law”). As
    we noted in FOP, “the conscience-shock inquiry is a ‘threshold
    question’ ‘in a due process challenge to executive action.’ ”
    FOP, 
    375 F.3d at 1145
     (quoting Lewis, 
    523 U.S. at
    847 n.8).
    Conscience-shocking conduct that violates due process usually
    takes the form of affirmative state action. See, e.g., Rochin v.
    California, 
    342 U.S. 165
    , 172–73 (1952) (officers entering
    appellant’s home without warrant, tackling him to ground and
    pumping his stomach against his will shocks conscience); Norris
    v. District of Columbia, 
    737 F.2d 1148
    , 1151 (D.C. Cir. 1984)
    (corrections officers’ brutal and habitual beatings of prisoner
    shocks conscience).
    If the plaintiff alleges that the government official failed to
    act, however, he must show that the official was at least
    deliberately indifferent to his constitutional rights. See Collins,
    11
    
    503 U.S. at 117
    ; City of Canton v. Harris, 
    489 U.S. 378
    , 390
    (1989) (city must exhibit deliberate indifference toward
    individual in its custody before he can bring § 1983 claim based
    on its failure to train officers). Deliberate indifference must still
    be conscience-shocking in order to state a substantive due
    process claim; however, as noted earlier, the “lower threshold
    for meeting the shock the conscience test by showing
    deliberately indifferent as opposed to intentional conduct applies
    only in circumstances where the State has a heightened
    obligation toward the individual.” FOP, 
    375 F.3d at
    1145–46
    (quotation marks omitted).
    The Firefighters assert that their complaint is based on
    affirmative state action and, alternatively, on deliberate
    indifference, arguing that Edwards’s conduct in not following
    Department SOPs and not providing adequate training
    constituted the adoption and implementation of a conscience-
    shocking government custom or policy.8 See Appellee’s Br. 8–9
    8
    Edwards’s argument that the Firefighters’ action amounts to a
    claim that the Department failed to provide a safe work environment
    falls wide of the mark. Appellant’s Br. 17. If this were the sole
    basis of the Firefighters’ complaint, Edwards would be correct under
    our holding in Washington and the Supreme Court’s holding in
    Collins that there is no constitutional right to a safe workplace. In
    Washington, for example, we held that a corrections officer’s
    allegation that the District’s failure to correct unsafe prison
    conditions that led to his being beaten by an inmate did not state a
    substantive due process claim because even a “reckless failure” to
    remedy unsafe working conditions is not a constitutional violation.
    Washington, 
    802 F.2d at
    1481–82. Likewise in Collins, the Supreme
    Court rejected the plaintiff’s argument that the municipality violated
    its employee’s substantive due process right when he died, allegedly
    as the result of the municipality’s failure to train and equip its
    employees working in city sewers. Even though the plaintiff
    12
    (“From the very beginning, the Firefighters have alleged two
    independent bases for the Court to find conscience-shocking
    governmental conduct.”). Nevertheless their complaint accuses
    Edwards of inaction rather than action. See Phillips 1st Am.
    Compl. ¶ 96, JA 71 (“[Edwards] deliberately and knowingly
    failed to follow . . . established mandatory Standard Operating
    Procedures . . .”), id. ¶ 68, JA 62 (“The custom and policy of
    Defendant District of Columbia constituted deliberate
    indifference to the clearly established rights of the Plaintiff
    Firefighters.”); id. ¶ 67, id. (“The conduct and attitude of the
    Defendant District of Columbia by virtue of years of notice and
    opportunity to reduce firefighter risk by ignoring warnings of
    operational failings, was egregious and shocks the conscience
    because of, inter alia, the special relationship Defendant District
    “alleged that a prior incident had given the city notice of the risks of
    entering the sewer lines and that the city had systematically and
    intentionally failed to provide the equipment and training required by
    a Texas statute,” Collins, 
    503 U.S. at
    117–18 (footnote omitted), the
    Court affirmed the dismissal. Because the claimant had not alleged
    that the city acted willfully, the Supreme Court read the complaint to
    allege, inter alia, that “the Federal Constitution imposes a duty on
    the city to provide its employees with minimal levels of safety.” 
    Id. at 126
    . The Court rejected this notion because “[n]either the text nor
    the history of the Due Process Clause supports petitioner’s claim that
    the governmental employer’s duty to provide its employees with a
    safe working environment is a substantive component of the Due
    Process Clause.” 
    Id. at 126
    . The Firefighters, however, charge
    Edwards with conscience-shocking conduct, not with the failure to
    provide a safe workplace. See Phillips 1st Am. Compl. ¶¶ 67, 68,
    JA 62 (Edwards’s conduct was “egregious and shock[ed] the
    conscience” and constituted “deliberate indifference to the
    [Firefighters’] clearly established rights.”). See Appellee’s Br. 6–8.
    13
    of Columbia has with its firefighters and their reliance upon the
    D.C. Fire Department not to institute a policy of deliberate
    indifference regarding their safety.”).         Both times the
    Firefighters’ complaint was before it, the district court treated it
    as alleging deliberate indifference rather than affirmative state
    action; in Phillips II, it applied the FOP heightened obligation
    requirement based on deliberate indifference. See Phillips II,
    
    355 F. Supp. 2d at 222
    ; see also Phillips I, 
    257 F. Supp. 2d at 79
    (holding “plaintiffs in the present instance have sufficiently
    alleged that the government violated their substantive due
    process rights by acting with deliberate indifference”). The
    Firefighters’ arguments before us are similar—that Edwards
    violated their rights by not acting.9 See, e.g., Appellee’s Br. 3
    (“The Firefighters seek to hold Chief Edwards individually
    responsible for these subject deaths and injuries on the theory
    that he was deliberately indifferent. . . .”). Fairly read, the
    Firefighters’ complaint alleges that Edwards failed to act and
    therefore deliberate indifference is the standard we apply.
    Because deliberate indifference requires a “lower threshold”
    showing than does an affirmative act, we insist that only if the
    “special circumstances” of a special relationship exist can a
    “State official’s deliberate indifference . . . be truly shocking.”
    FOP, 
    375 F.3d at 1146
     (internal quotation marks omitted); see
    9
    Despite the Firefighters’ claim that Smith v. District of
    Columbia, 
    413 F.3d 86
     (D.C. Cir. 2005), holds that a policy of
    inaction “is typically an affirmative act,” in that case we
    characterized the District’s failure to set standards or train employees
    as “a policy of deliberate indifference.” Smith, 
    413 F.3d at 98
    (emphasis added). We also considered whether a special relationship
    existed between the plaintiff and the District, see 
    id. at 93
    , an
    unnecessary inquiry if Smith had in fact been an affirmative act
    rather than a failure to act case.
    14
    also Butera, 
    235 F.3d at 651
     (“lower threshold [for meeting the
    shock the conscience test by showing deliberately indifferent as
    opposed to intentional conduct] is appropriate in circumstances
    where the State has a heightened obligation toward the
    individual”) (citing Lewis, 
    523 U.S. at 851
    ).10 Here the district
    court found that Edwards owed the Firefighters a heightened
    obligation because of 
    D.C. Code § 5-407
    (a), which restricts their
    ability to terminate their employment. Phillips II, 
    355 F. Supp. 2d at 222
     (in requiring firefighter to give one month’s notice or
    obtain Mayor’s permission before resigning, section 5-407(a)
    created a relationship “closer to the heightened obligation
    standard than would the more common at-will, voluntary
    employment situation”). On appeal the Firefighters attempt to
    buttress the district court’s finding by pointing to two additional
    code sections that allegedly restricted their liberty and therefore
    created a special relationship between them and the District:
    
    D.C. Code § 5-410
    , which forbids firefighters from leaving the
    District unless on a leave of absence, and 
    D.C. Code § 5-105.08
    ,
    in effect at the time of the Cherry Road fire but no longer in
    force, which required firefighters to reside within the District.
    See Appellee’s Br. 17. None of these restrictions, individually
    or collectively, constitutes a deprivation of liberty by the District
    sufficient to establish a special relationship.11
    10
    It is true that in Butera we found that under the “State
    endangerment” theory discussed there, “something less than physical
    custody may suffice to present a substantive due process claim.”
    Butera, 
    235 F.3d at 651
    . This language, however, appeared in the
    context of an alleged due process violation based on affirmative
    action rather than deliberate indifference.
    11
    Moreover, the restrictions relied on by the district court to
    distinguish a firefighter’s situation from conventional at-will
    employment are not imposed; rather, a firefighter agrees to them as
    15
    In DeShaney v. Winnebago County Department of Social
    Services, 
    489 U.S. 189
     (1989), the Supreme Court described the
    special relationship necessary to assert a section 1983 claim
    based on a failure to act. There social workers personally
    observed the injuries a father inflicted on his child; the man later
    beat his son so severely that the child suffered permanent
    injuries. The child and his mother brought a section 1983 claim
    conditions of employment. Other circuits have rejected state-
    enforced restrictions on an individual’s freedom that are voluntarily
    assumed as imposing a heightened obligation on the state. In Walton
    v. Alexander, 
    44 F.3d 1297
     (5th Cir. 1995), for example, the Fifth
    Circuit, sitting en banc, found no special relationship between the
    state and the plaintiff, a student at a state-supported residential
    school, and the school’s superintendent could therefore not be found
    individually liable under section 1983 on a deliberate indifference
    theory for a classmate’s sexual assault of the plaintiff. Even though
    the plaintiff lost a “substantial measure of his freedom” because of
    the residential school’s restrictions, he attended the school “through
    his own free will (or that of his parents) without any coercion by the
    state”; his “willful relinquishment of a small fraction of liberty is
    simply not comparable to that measure of almost total deprivation
    experienced by a prisoner or involuntarily committed mental
    patient.” 
    Id.
     at 1304–05. “[O]nly when the state, by its affirmative
    exercise of power, has custody over an individual involuntarily or
    against his will does a special relationship exist between the
    individual and the state.” 
    Id. at 1303
     (emphasis in original)
    (quotation marks omitted); see also de Jesus Benavides v. Santos,
    
    883 F.2d 385
    , 388 (5th Cir. 1989) (no special relationship between
    plaintiff corrections officers injured by inmates during escape attempt
    and state because officers “enlisted, on terms they found satisfactory,
    and . . . were free to quit whenever they pleased”) (quoting
    Washington) (cited in Walton).
    16
    against the Winnebago County Department of Social Services,
    claiming that its social workers had violated the child’s
    substantive due process right. The Court rejected her claim,
    concluding that “[i]f the Due Process Clause does not require the
    State to provide its citizens with particular protective services,
    it follows that the State cannot be held liable under the clause for
    injuries that could have been averted had it chosen to provide
    them.” 
    Id.
     at 196–97. The DeShaney Court nevertheless found
    that “when the State by the affirmative exercise of its power so
    restrains an individual’s liberty that it renders him unable to care
    for himself, and at the same time fails to provide for his basic
    human needs,” such as in the custodial context if the state
    restrains a person from acting on his own behalf, a “special
    relationship” exists which gives rise to an affirmative duty to
    protect that person. 
    Id.
     at 200–02.12
    In the public employment context, we have consistently
    rejected imposing a heightened employer–to–employee
    obligation because of the absence of a state-imposed restraint on
    liberty. In FOP, we cited Washington’s language distinguishing
    a prison inmate from a corrections officer:
    Prison guards, unlike the prisoners in their charge, are not
    held in state custody. Their decision to work as guards is
    voluntary. If they deem the terms of their employment
    12
    In the failure to act context, at least one circuit has concluded
    that a special relationship does not exist without custody. See, e.g.,
    Pinder v. Johnson, 
    54 F.3d 1169
    , 1175 (4th Cir.), cert. denied, 
    516 U.S. 994
     (1995) (because custody—element the Supreme Court made
    “the crux of the special relationship rule”—was lacking, plaintiff did
    not allege the violation of a clearly established constitutional right
    and officer entitled to qualified immunity).
    17
    unsatisfactory, e.g., if salary, promotion prospects, or
    safety are inadequate, they may seek employment
    elsewhere. The state did not force [the plaintiff] to become
    a guard, and the state has no constitutional obligation to
    protect him from the hazards inherent in that occupation.
    FOP, 
    375 F.3d at
    1146 (citing Washington, 
    802 F.2d at 1482
    ).
    In Washington, the plaintiff corrections officer alleged that it
    was District prison authorities’ deliberate indifference to the
    dangerous conditions allowing his beating to occur—not the
    prisoners who beat him—that caused the constitutional harm.
    See Washington, 
    802 F.2d at 1479
    . In FOP, the corrections
    officers claimed that District officials, “by increasing the
    number of inmates at the Jail while decreasing the number of
    correctional officers there, affirmatively subjected correctional
    officers to an increased likelihood of inmate assaults,” thereby
    violating their due process rights. FOP, 
    375 F.3d at 1142
    .
    Because no special relationship existed between the state and
    the officers in either case, however, action the District did not
    take could not be the basis of a due process violation. 
    Id.
     at
    1146–47; Washington, 
    802 F.2d at
    1481–82. See also Wallace
    v. Adkins, 
    115 F.3d 427
    , 429–30 (7th Cir. 1997) (“[T]he risk of
    a job reprimand, or even firing, operates as a practical constraint
    on a person’s actions, [but] this is still a far cry from the
    custodial settings that normally give rise to a special duty on the
    state’s part”; “prison guards ordered to stay at their posts are not
    in the kind of custodial setting required to create a special
    relationship for 14th Amendment substantive due process
    purposes”); Walker v. Rowe, 
    791 F.2d 507
    , 511 (7th Cir. 1986).
    The Firefighters counter that they do not claim
    constitutional protection from inherent hazards, as did the
    corrections officers in FOP, but from Edwards’s deliberate
    indifference to the known need to institute training and to
    implement and enforce mandatory safety procedures. This
    18
    circumstance, they argue, was not inherent to their profession
    but rather constituted “avoidable state-created additional risks
    of injury” unknown to the Firefighters when they joined the
    Department. Appellees’ Br. 18 (emphasis added). Washington,
    however, rejected the theory that a failure to act that increases
    the plaintiff’s risk of harm constitutes conscience-shocking
    action. In Washington the plaintiff corrections officer made
    similar claims, pointing to “overcrowding of prisoners, paucity
    of guards, inadequate procedures for searching prisoners and
    their cells for weapons, and inadequate procedures for
    identifying and isolating prisoners with known violent
    tendencies.” Washington, 
    802 F.2d at 1479
    . His complaint
    alleged that the District officials’ “reckless failure . . . to remedy
    unsafe conditions at the reformatory” increased the officer’s
    exposure to the hazard that eventually caused him harm; we
    nonetheless found the harm—a severe beating—“inherent in
    [his] occupation.” See 
    id. at 1479, 1482
    . As in Washington,
    Edwards’s deliberate indifference may have increased the
    Firefighters’ exposure to risk, but the risk itself—injury or death
    suffered in a fire—is inherent in their profession. As both
    Washington and FOP make clear, the District is not
    constitutionally obliged by the Due Process Clause to protect
    public employees from inherent job-related risks. Washington,
    
    802 F.2d at 1479
    ; FOP, 
    375 F.3d at 1146
    ; see also Collins, 
    503 U.S. at 128
     (in absence of allegation of conscience-shocking
    conduct “we have previously rejected claims that the Due
    Process Clause should be interpreted to impose federal duties
    that are analogous to those traditionally imposed by state tort
    law. The reasoning in those cases applies with special force to
    claims asserted against public employers because state law,
    rather than the Federal Constitution, generally governs the
    substance of the employment relationship”) (internal citations
    omitted).
    19
    The Firefighters point to a recent case of ours, Smith v.
    District of Columbia, 
    413 F.3d 86
     (D.C. Cir. 2005), as a holding
    counter to our bright-line application of the custody
    requirement. In Smith, an unidentified assailant murdered a
    seventeen-year-old who was living in the Queenstown
    Apartments residential complex as part of a program for
    delinquent youth. We affirmed a jury verdict finding the
    District liable for the resident’s death under section 1983,
    holding that the District had a heightened obligation to the
    resident and thereby had an affirmative duty to protect him, a
    duty which the jury reasonably concluded the District had
    breached by its conscience-shocking deliberate indifference to
    his safety. Emphasizing the Smith victim’s relative freedom of
    movement yet restricted place of residence (similar to the
    restraints the D.C. Code provisions allegedly placed on them),
    the Firefighters claim that Smith supports their contention that
    a heightened obligation can exist absent custody. But in Smith
    we found that the District had a heightened obligation because
    its in loco parentis status significantly restrained the victim’s
    liberty. See Smith, 
    413 F.3d at 95
     (resident legally bound to
    participate in program and live at site it provided; “[h]e could
    not have gone elsewhere even if, for example, he felt threatened
    by his roommate or his neighbors”); 
    id. at 94
     (“Because the
    District, rather than [his] family, had primary legal control over
    him, the District had legal responsibility for his daily care.”); 
    id.
    (resident “had more freedom than a prisoner—subject to
    [program] rules, he could come and go, and take [program]-
    approved weekend home visits. . . . But such flexibility hardy
    amounts to freedom from state restraints. [He] had to live at
    Queenstown Apartments. He had no choice.”). The restrictions
    on his liberty—imposed on him by the District—are plainly
    distinguishable from those restrictions the D.C. Code imposes
    on the Firefighters’ liberty—restrictions voluntarily assumed by
    20
    the Firefighters as conditions of employment by the
    Department.
    The facts here, like those in DeShaney, are indeed tragic.
    Joseph Morgan and Charles Redding suffered severe injuries
    and Anthony Phillips and Louis Matthews died attempting to
    save the lives and property of others. But the Constitution does
    not provide a basis for holding Edwards individually
    responsible.13 The Firefighters have not alleged the deprivation
    of a clearly established constitutional right and Edwards is
    therefore entitled to qualified immunity from suit in his
    individual capacity. Accordingly, we reverse the district court’s
    denial of Edwards’s motion to dismiss based on qualified
    immunity and remand for further proceedings consistent with
    this opinion.
    So ordered.
    13
    This is not to say that state law tort claims are not available to
    the Firefighters. Indeed, their consolidated complaints include
    pendent causes of action for wrongful death and intentional tortious
    conduct. See, e.g., Phillips 1st Am. Compl. ¶ 87, JA 67–68. In
    addition, as the District Court pointed out, while the District of
    Columbia Police and Firefighters Retirement and Disability Act,
    
    D.C. Code §§ 4
    –601-34, generally provides “ ‘the exclusive remedy
    against the District of Columbia for uniformed personnel’ injured in
    the performance of their duties,” it does not preclude an intentional
    tort claim brought against a public official. Phillips I, 
    257 F. Supp. 2d at
    83–84 (quoting Vargo v. Barry, 
    667 A.2d 98
     (D.C. 1995)).
    

Document Info

Docket Number: 03-7060, 05-7013

Citation Numbers: 372 U.S. App. D.C. 312, 455 F.3d 397, 2006 WL 2128987

Judges: Henderson, Rogers, Brown

Filed Date: 8/1/2006

Precedential Status: Precedential

Modified Date: 10/18/2024

Authorities (21)

carol-l-pinder-individually-and-in-her-capacity-as-surviving-mother-of , 54 F.3d 1169 ( 1995 )

Wilson v. Layne , 119 S. Ct. 1692 ( 1999 )

Estate of Phillips v. District of Columbia , 257 F. Supp. 2d 69 ( 2003 )

Estate of Phillips v. District of Columbia , 355 F. Supp. 2d 212 ( 2005 )

Collins v. City of Harker Heights , 112 S. Ct. 1061 ( 1992 )

City of Canton v. Harris , 109 S. Ct. 1197 ( 1989 )

County of Sacramento v. Lewis , 118 S. Ct. 1708 ( 1998 )

Herbert Wallace v. Charles Adkins, Bernard Johnson, Ezra ... , 115 F.3d 427 ( 1997 )

Smith v. District of Columbia , 413 F.3d 86 ( 2005 )

Barham, Jeffrey v. Ramsey, Charles H. , 434 F.3d 565 ( 2006 )

Vargo v. Barry , 1995 D.C. App. LEXIS 277 ( 1995 )

Intl Actn Ctr v. United States , 365 F.3d 20 ( 2004 )

Jose De Jesus Benavides v. Mario Santos, Jr., Etc., Mario ... , 883 F.2d 385 ( 1989 )

Joseph Walton, as Next Friend of Christopher Walton, a ... , 44 F.3d 1297 ( 1995 )

Dale Walker v. Charles Rowe and David Sandahl , 791 F.2d 507 ( 1986 )

Fraternal Order of Police Department of Corrections Labor ... , 375 F.3d 1141 ( 2004 )

John v. Norris v. District of Columbia , 737 F.2d 1148 ( 1984 )

Wagener v. SBC Pension Benefit Plan-Non Bargained Program , 407 F.3d 395 ( 2005 )

Anderson v. Creighton , 107 S. Ct. 3034 ( 1987 )

Butera v. District of Columbia , 235 F.3d 637 ( 2001 )

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