American Insurance Association v. United States Department of Housing and Urban Development ( 2014 )


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  • UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
    FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
    AMERICAN INSURANCE )
    ASSOCIATION, et al., )
    )
    Plaintiffs, )
    )
    v. ) Civil Case No. 13-00966 (RJL)
    )
    UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT )
    OF HOUSING AND URBAN ) F
    DEVELOPMENT, et al., ) I L E D
    ) NQV 03 2014
    Defendants. ) Clerk U
    , .s. m ti m
    VJ Courts for the Dirsfrict Sfa grim};
    MEMORANDUM OPINION
    (November 3, 2014) [Dkt. ##16, 20]
    Plaintiffs American Insurance Association (“AIA”) and National Association of
    Mutual Insurance Companies (“NAMIC”) (together “plaintiffs”)1 brought this action
    against the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (“HUD”) and
    Julian CastroZ—in his official capacity as Secretary of the United States Department
    Housing and Urban Development—(“Secretary”) (together “defendants”) on June 26,
    2013, see Complaint (“Compl.”) [Dkt. #1], challenging defendants’ promulgation of a
    1 Plaintiffs are two non-profit trade associations whose members sell homeowner’s insurance in
    every state and territory of the United States. See Compl. 111] 7-8.
    2 Plaintiffs originally named Shaun Donovan—in his official capacity as Secretary of HUD—as a
    defendant in this case. See Compl. 1f 10. However, on July 28, 2014, Julian Castro assumed
    office as the 16th United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, replacing
    Secretary Donovan. Accordingly, pursuant to Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 25(d), Secretary
    Castro shall be, and hereby is, substituted for Shaun Donovan as a named defendant in this
    action. See Fed. R. Civ. P. 25(d).
    final rule, see Implementation of the Fair Housing Act’s Discriminatory Effects Standard,
    78 Fed. Reg. 11,460 (Feb. 15, 2013) (codified at 24 C.F.R. § 100.500) (“Disparate—Impact
    Rule” or “Rule”), providing for liability based on disparate impact under the Fair Housing
    Act (“FHA” or the “Act”), Pub. L. No. 90-284, 82 Stat. 81 (1968) (codified at 42 U.S.C.
    § 3601 et seq). Plaintiffs claim that defendants violated the Administrative Procedure
    Act (“APA”), 5 U.S.C. § 551 et seq, by exceeding its statutory authority when it
    expanded the scope of the FHA to recognize not only disparate-treatment claims (i.e.
    intentional discrimination) but also disparate—impact claims (z'.e. facially neutral practices
    with discriminatory effects). See Plaintiffs’ Memorandum in Support of Motion for
    Summary Judgment (“Pls.’ Mem.”) [Dkt. 16-1] at 8—9. Now before the Court are
    plaintiffs’ Motion for Summary Judgment (“Pls’ Mot”) [Dkt. #16] and defendants’
    Motion to Dismiss or, in the Alternative, for Summary Judgment (“Defs’ Mot”) [Dkt.
    #20]. After due consideration of the parties’ pleadings, the arguments of counsel, the
    relevant law, and the entire record in this case, the Court agrees with plaintiffs that the
    FHA prohibits disparate treatment only, and that the defendants, therefore, exceeded their
    authority under the APA. Accordingly the plaintiffs” Motion for Summary Judgment is
    GRANTED, the defendants’ Motion to Dismiss or, in the Alternative, for Summary
    Judgment is DENIED, and the Disparate-Impact Rule is VACATED.
    relief above the speculative level.” BeZZAtZ. Corp. v. Twombly, 550 US. 544, 545
    (2007). Moreover, the court need not “accept legal conclusions cast in the form of
    factual allegations,” nor “inferences drawn by plaintiffs if such inferences are
    unsupported by the facts set out in the complaint.” Kowal v. MCI Commc ’ns Corp, 
    16 F.3d 1271
    , 1276 (DC. Cir. 1994).
    II. Rule 56(a) Summary Judgment
    Under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 56(a), summary judgment is appropriate
    when the evidence in the record demonstrates that “there is no genuine dispute .as to any
    material fact and the movant is entitled to judgment as a matter of law.” Fed. R. Civ. P.
    56(a); see, e.g., Celorex Corp. v. Catretl, 477 US. 317, 322 (1986). When evaluating
    cross motions for summary judgment, “the court shall grant summary judgment only if
    one of the moving parties is entitled to judgment as a matter of law upon material facts
    that are not genuinely disputed.” Select Specially Hosp. -Bl00mingt0n, Inc. v. Sebelz‘us,
    
    774 F. Supp. 2d 332
    , 338 (D.D.C. 2011) (internal quotation marks and citation omitted).
    The court must accept as true the evidence of, and draw “all justifiable inferences” in
    favor of, the party opposing summary judgment. Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc, 477
    US. 242, 255 (1986) (citation omitted). A genuine issue exists only where “the evidence
    is such that a reasonable jury could return a verdict for the nonmoving party.” Id. at 248.
    The nonmoving party may not rely solely on unsubstantiated allegations or conclusory
    statements. See Greene v. Dalton, 
    164 F.3d 671
    , 675 (DC. Cir. 1999).
    ll
    ANALYSIS
    1. Standing
    A plaintiff establishes Article III standing by demonstrating that he or she has
    suffered an injury-in-fact, traceable to the defendant’s actions, that a favorable judgment
    would redress. See, e.g., Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife, 504 US. 555, 560-61 (1992).
    As trade associations proceeding on their members’ behalf, plaintiffs have standing as
    long as one of their members has standing, the suit is germane to the plaintiffs’ purpose,
    and the suit does not require the participation of the plaintiffs’ individual members. See,
    e.g., Hunt v. Washington State Apple Advertising Comm ’n, 432 US. 333, 343 (1977).
    The Government does not challenge that the plaintiffs satisfy the last two requirements of
    associational standing. The issue, then, is whether any of plaintiffs’ members have
    standing under Article III. Unfortunately for the defendants, they do.
    A. Plaintiffs’ Standing is Self-Evident
    When, as here, the plaintiffs are “an object of the action (or foregone action) at
    issue,” the Supreme Court has explained that “there is ordinarily little question that the
    action or inaction has caused him injury, and that a judgment preventing or requiring the
    action will redress it.” Lujan, 504 US. at 561-62 (emphasis added). Indeed, our Court
    of Appeals has stated that when “the complainant is ‘an object of the [agency] action . . .
    at issue,”’ such as a rulemaking, the complainant’s “standing to seek review of
    administrative action is self—evident.” Sierra Club v. EPA, 
    292 F.3d 895
    , 899-900 (BC.
    12
    Cir. 2002) (quoting Lujan, 504 US. at 561-62). In such a case, there “should be ‘little
    question that the action or inaction has caused [the plaintiff] injury, and that a judgment
    preventing or requiring the action will redress it.’” Id. at 900 (quoting Lujan, 504 US. at
    561-62).
    Our Circuit Court has affirmed this principle of self-evident standing on numerous
    occasions in a wide variety of circumstances, and various members of our Court have so
    ruled. See, e.g., Aflum v. United States, 
    566 F.3d 1150
    , 1158 (DC. Cir. 2009) (store
    owner challenging regulations implementing penalties for trafficking in food stamp
    benefits); South CoastAir Quality Mgmt. Dist. v. EPA, 
    472 F.3d 882
    , 895-96 (DC. Cir.
    2006) (association of petrochemical refiners challenging a pollution regulation scheme);
    Fundfor Animals, Inc. v. Norton, 
    322 F.3d 728
    , 733—34 (DC. Cir. 2003) (environmental
    group challenging endangered species designation); Int ’1 Fabricare Inst. v. EPA, 
    972 F.2d 384
    , 390 (DC. Cir. 1992) (public water systems operators challenging water standards);
    Fla. Bankers Ass ’n v. US. Dep’t ofTreasury, _ F. Supp. 2d _, Civ. No. 13-529
    (JEB), 
    2014 WL 114519
    , at *5-*6 (D.D.C. Jan. 13, 2014) (bank association challenging
    bank regulations); Banner Health v. Sebeiius, 
    797 F. Supp. 2d 97
    , 107-08 (CKK) (D.D.C.
    201]) (hospitals challenging Medicare reimbursement regulations); Russell—Murray
    Hospice v. Sebelius, 
    724 F. Supp. 2d 43
    , 53 (RMU) (D.D.C. 2010) (hospice care provider
    challenging Medicare reimbursement regulations); Am. Petroleum Inst. v. Johnson, 541 F.
    Supp. 2d 165, 176-77 (PLF) (D.D.C. 2008) (companies engaged in natural gas industry
    13
    challenging definition of navigable waters); Nat ’1 Ass ’11 ofors. v. Taylor, 549 F. Supp.
    2d 33, 48 n.8 (CKK) (D.D.C. 2008) (manufacturers challenging statutory lobbying
    restrictions).
    As described above, the Disparate-Impact Rule was clearly intended to apply to the
    “provision and pricing of homeowner’s insurance,” which is precisely the business
    engaged in by plaintiffs’ members. See supra pp. 6-8.11 As such, I easily find that the
    plaintiffs’ standing to challenge the Rule is self-evident and that the plaintiffs are not
    required to submit any additional evidence. See Sierra Club, 292 F.3d at 900
    (explaining that when standing is self-evident, the plaintiff or its members need not bring
    forward additional evidence).
    However, even assuming, arguendo, that standing was not self-evident, the
    . . . . . . 12 . . . .
    plaintlffs have already submitted addltlonal ev1dence demonstrating Injury-1n-fact to
    . . . . . l3 .
    their members that further cements the1r standlng to br1ng this case. And, w1th respect
    ” The notion that insurers are an object of the Rule is made even more obvious by the fact that
    certain disparate-impact complaints against plaintiffs’ members, including the complaint initiated
    by HUD itself, were filed only after HUD issued the Rule. See infra n.13.
    12
    Plaintiffs include with their Reply affidavits and a declaration of six insurance industry
    professionals, each of whom details the unreasonably harmful effects the Disparate—Impact Rule
    will have on the business of homeowner’s insurance. See Pls.’ Reply, Ex. 1 (Declaration of
    Peter Schwartz) (“Schwartz Decl.”) [Dkt. #27—1]; Pls.’ Reply, Ex. 2 (Affidavit of Bill Essman)
    (“Essman Affidavit”) [Dkt. #27-2]; Pls.’ Reply, Ex. 3 (Affidavit of Kathleen Rudolph)
    (“Rudolph Affidavit”) [Dkt. #27-3]; Pls.’ Reply, Ex. 4 (Affidavit of Kevin J. Christy) (“Christy
    Affidavit”) [Dkt. #27—4]; Pls.’ Reply, Ex. 5 (Affidavit of Martin M. Doto) (“Doto Affidavit”)
    [Dkt. #27-5]; Pls.’ Reply, Ex. 6 (Affidavit of Victoria L. McCarthy) (“McCarthy Affidavit”)
    [Dkt. #27-6]; see also Rainbow/PUSH Coal, 396 F .3d at 1239 (explaining that the evidence to
    establish standing may take the form of affidavits submitted in response to a motion to dismiss).
    '3 At least one of plaintiffs’ members has already been subject to three HUD complaints since
    14
    to traceability and redressability, plaintiffs have additionally, and easily, satisfied those
    requirements as well.14 Finally, with regard to whether this agency action is ripe for
    review, the question presented here——whether disparate-impact claims are cognizable
    under the F HA—is a purely legal question of statutory interpretation that does not depend
    promulgation of the Rule, including one initiated by HUD itself. See Schwartz Decl. 11114-12.
    In light of these pending complaints, it is beyond dispute that plaintiffs’ members face a
    significant threat of litigation and agency enforcement actions as a result of the Rule, which is
    sufficient injury. See, e. g., Chamber of Commerce v. Fed. Election Comm ’n, 
    69 F.3d 600
    , 603
    (DC. Cir. 1995). Furthermore, plaintiffs have averred significant compliance costs as a result of
    the Rule. See Compl. ‘11 26; Essman Affidavit 11 4; Rudolph Affidavit $111 9, 13; Christy Affidavit
    11 5; Doto Affidavit 11 5; McCarthy Affidavit 11 6. Where an agency rule “influences [plaintiffs’]
    business decisions such that they have incurred and likely will incur substantial costs as a result
    of the new [rule], those declarations are sufficient to establish that plaintiffs have been ‘injured’
    for purposes of the standing analysis.” Am. Petroleum Inst. v. Johnson, 541 F. Supp. 2d at
    176-77.
    14 The pre-Rule question of disparate-impact liability under the statutory language of the FHA
    has never been resolved conclusively in our Circuit, see Greater New Orleans Fair Hons. Action
    Ctr., 639 F .3d at 1085 (assuming, without deciding, that disparate-impact liability is available),
    and judges in this District have reached differing results. Compare Nat ’l Cmt. y Reinvestment
    Coal. v. Accredited Home Lenders Holding Co., 
    573 F. Supp. 2d 70
    , 77-79 (EGS) (D.D.C. 2008)
    (holding, without explanation, that the FHA permits disparate-impact claims), with Brown, 654
    F. Supp. at 1115—16 (HHG) (holding that it does not, at least against private defendants). More
    importantly, the question of disparate-impact liability for insurers under the Fair Housing Act
    was a much more uncertain question prior to the Rule, and the Rule purports to resolve the
    question in favor of insurer liability. See Saunders v. Farmers Ins. Exchange, 
    537 F.3d 961
    , 964
    (8th Cir. 2008) (stating that “we have recognized a disparate impact Fair Housing Act claim
    against private actors in another context,” but acknowledging that, “at least with respect to
    insurers, the question is not free from doubt”) (emphasis in original); Mackey v. Nationwide Ins.
    Cos, 
    724 F.2d 419
    , 423-25 (4th Cir. 1984) (holding that the FHA does not apply to insurance);
    but see Ojo v. Farmers Group, Inc, 
    600 F.3d 1205
    , 1208 (9th Cir. 2010) (applying FHA
    prohibition on racial discrimination to denial and pricing of homeowner’s insurance); Not 7 Fair
    Hons. Alliance, Inc. v. Prudential Ins. Co. 0fAm., 
    208 F. Supp. 2d 46
    , 59-60 (EGS) (D.D.C.
    2002). At a minimum, the Rule resolves whatever uncertainty existed as to the availability of
    disparate-impact liability. Because the Rule changed the law, it is traceable to plaintiffs’ alleged
    injuries, and an order enjoining enforcement of the Rule would redress those injuries.
    15
    on the application of the Rule to any particular facts. As such, I find that plaintiffs’
    claims are over ripe for judicial review!
    11. Administrative Procedure Act
    Because the issue before me is whether disparate—impact claims are cognizable
    under the Fair Housing Act, I must, in the final analysis, determine whether the text of the
    FHA unambiguously evidences Congress’s intent for such claims to be cognizable under
    the Act. Plaintiffs argue, in essence, that only disparate-treatment (intentional
    discrimination) claims are unambiguously cognizable under the plain text of the FHA.
    See Pls.’ Mem. at 10. Unfortunately for the defendants, I agree.
    Pursuant to the APA, courts must set aside any agency action that is in excess of
    that agency’s “statutory jurisdiction, authority, or limitations.” 5 U.S.C. § 706(2)(C).
    Courts must also set aside agency action that is “arbitrary, capricious, an abuse of
    discretion, or otherwise not in accordance with law.” Id. at § 706(2)(A). Judicial
    review of an agency’s interpretation of a statute that it administers15 is governed by the
    framework laid out by the Supreme Court in Chevron, USA, Inc. v. Natural Resources
    Def. Council, Inc, 467 US. 837 (1984). In Chevron, the Court held that “[i]fthe intent
    of Congress is clear [as to a specific issue], that is the end ofthe matter; for the court, as
    well as the agency, must give effect to the unambiguously expressed intent of
    ‘5 Congress has vested the Secretary of HUD with “[t]he authority and responsibility for
    administering [the FHA].” 42 U.S.C. § 3608(a).
    l6
    Congress.”16 Id. at 842-43; see also Conn. Nat 7 Bank v. Germain, 503 US. 249, 253-54
    (1992) (noting that “courts must presume that a legislature says in a statute what it means
    and means in a statute what it says there”). If the court determines, however, that “the
    statute is silent or ambiguous with respect to the specific issue,” the court must advance to
    step-two of the Chevron analysis and determine “whether the agency’s answer is based on
    a permissible construction ofthe statute.”17 Chevron, 467 US. at 843.
    Here, however, an analysis under Chevron step-two is unnecessary. For the
    following reasons, I agree with the plaintiffs that the FHA unambiguously prohibits only
    intentional discrimination. Accordingly, the Disparate-Impact Rule exceeds HUD’s
    “statutory jurisdiction, authority, or limitations,” 5 U.S.C. § 706(2)(C), and thereby
    violates the APA.
    A. Statutory Language
    The Supreme Court has made clear that statutes will only prohibit practices
    resulting in a disparate impact—in the absence of any discriminatory intent—when they
    contain clear language to that effect. See Smith v. City ofJackson, 544 US. 228, 235-36
    ‘6 In attempting to ascertain the intent of Congress, the court is not limited to analysis of an
    enabling statute’s text alone. Indeed, the court may consider “the text, structure, purpose, and
    history of an agency’s authorizing statute to determine whether a statutory provision admits of
    congressional intent on the precise question at issue.” Hearth, Patio & Barbecue Ass ’n v. Dep ’t
    ofEnergy, 
    706 F.3d 499
    , 503 (DC. Cir. 2013).
    ‘7 To uphold an agency’s interpretation of an enabling statute, the court need not find that the
    interpretation is “the best interpretation of the statute,” United States v. Haggar Apparel Co. , 526
    US. 380, 394 (1999) (citation omitted), or that it is the “most natural one by grammatical or
    other standards,” Pauley v. BethEnergy Mines, Inc, 501 US. 680, 702 (1991) (citing EEOC v.
    Commercial Office Products Co., 486 US. 107, 115 (1988)).
    17
    (2005) (plurality opinion); Bd. of Educ. of the City Sch. Dist. of the City of New York v.
    Harris, 444 US. 130, 138-39 (1979) (Harris); see also Washington v. Davis, 426 US.
    229, 239 (1976). Defendants contend, nevertheless, that Congress’s intent to recognize
    claims based on disparate impact under the FHA can somehow be found in the language
    of three particular sections of the Act. See Defs.’ Mem. at 23-24; see also 42 U.S.C.
    § 3604 (prohibiting refusal to sell or rent property “because of” a protected
    characteristic); id. § 3605 (prohibiting discrimination in real estate-related transactions
    “because of” a protected characteristic; id. § 3606 (prohibiting discrimination in the
    provision of brokerage services “on account of” a protected characteristic).18 An analysis
    of the ordinary meaning of the words used by Congress in those sections, however,
    compels me to disagree. How so?
    The operative verbs in § 3604 are “refuse,” “make,” “deny,” and—~of
    course—“discriminate.” 42 U.S.C. § 3604(a). The ordinary meaning of “refuse” is “to
    show or express a positive unwillingness to do or comply with.” Webster’s Third New
    International Dictionary 1910 (1966) (“Webster’s Third”). The ordinary meaning of
    ‘3 Defendants further argue that similarities between the language contained in § 3604(a) and the
    language contained in two provisions of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (“Title VII”)
    and the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (“ADEA”)—both of which provide for claims
    based on disparate impact—indicate that disparate-impact claims should also be cognizable
    under the FHA. See Defs.’ Mem. at 22-23; see also 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(a)(2); 29 U.S.C.
    § 623(a)(2). Because the FHA fails to include definitions of the operative terms in §§ 3604,
    3505, and 3606, the analysis must begin with the words’ ordinary meanings. See Schindler
    Elevator Corp. v. UnitedStates ex rel. Kirk, 
    131 S. Ct. 1885
    , 1891 (2011) (citing Gross v. FBL
    Financial Servs., Inc, 557 US. 167, 175 (2009) (“Statutory construction must begin with the
    language employed by Congress and the assumption that the ordinary meaning of that language
    18
    “make”——as used in the phrase “make unavailable”—is “to produce as a result of action,
    effort, or behavior” or “to cause to happen to or be experienced by someone.” Webster’s
    Third 1363. The plain meaning of “deny” is “to refuse to grant” or “to turn down or give
    a negative answer to.” Webster’s Third 603. Finally, the plain meaning of
    “discriminate”19 is “to make a difference in treatment or favor on a class or categorical
    basis in disregard of individual merit.” Webster’s Third 648 (emphasis added).
    The use of these particular verbs is telling, and indicates that the statute is meant to
    prohibit intentional discrimination only. When Congress intends to expand liability to
    claims of discrimination based on disparate impact, it uses language focused on the result
    or effect of particular conduct, rather than the conduct itself. See, e. g, 42 U.S.C.
    § 2000e-2(a)(2) (employer shall not “limit, segregate, or classify his employees . . . in any
    way which would deprive 0r tend to deprive any individual of employment opportunities”
    or “otherwise adversely aflect his status as an employee” (emphasis added)); 29 U.S.C.
    accurately expresses the legislative purpose.” (internal quotation marks and citation omitted)».
    ‘9 HUD contends that the term “discriminate”—as it is used in the FHA “may encompass
    actions that have a discriminatory effect but not a discriminatory intent.” 78 Fed. Reg. 11,460,
    11,466. Please! HUD bases this position on the Supreme Court’s interpretation of the now
    repealed Emergency School Aid Act (“ESAA”). See id. n.49. Under the ESAA, schools were
    ineligible to receive further federal funding if they employed any practice “which results in the
    disproportionate demotion or dismissal of . . . personnel from minority groups” or “otherwise
    engage[s] in in discrimination . . . in the hiring, promotion, or assignment of employees.”
    Harris, 444 US. at 138 (quoting § 706(d)(1)(B) of the ESAA). In Harris, the Supreme Court
    held—despite its acknowledgment that “discriminate,” standing alone suggests intentional
    discrimination—that a discriminatory—impact test should apply to § 706(d)(1)(B). See id. at 139,
    141. In reaching its conclusion, however, the Court relied heavily on the fact that the
    discrimination clause was closely linked with the clause containing clear effects~based language.
    See id. at 143. Here, because there is no such linkage to any effects-based language, Harris is
    l9
    § 623(a)(2) (same); see also Smith, 544 US. at 235—36. Indeed, Congress drafted the
    disparate—impact provision of the ADEA with “key textual differences” from the
    provision prohibiting disparate-treatment. See Smith, 544 US. at 236 n.6; compare 29
    U.S.C. §623(a)(l), with 29 U.S.C. § 623(a)(2).
    In the FHA, Congress has included no such effects-based language. Each of the
    F HA’s operative terms’ definitions describe intentional acts, which are—more often than
    not—motivated by specific factors. The FHA lists its prohibited motivations for these
    intentional acts following the “because of’20 and “on account of” clauses in §§ 3604,
    3605, and 3606.21 However, the FHA contains no prohibitions on conduct that “tends to”
    cause a particular result. The focus of these sections is clearly not the effect of conduct,
    but rather the motivation for the conduct itself.
    Defendants, nevertheless, contend that § 3604(a)’s prohibition on discrimination is
    analogous to the language contained in the sections of Title VII and the ADEA that
    provide for claims based on disparate impact. See Defs.’ Mem. at 22-23; see also 42
    U.S.C. §2000€-2(a)(2); 29 U.S.C. § 623(a)(2); Griggs, 401 us. at 432; Smith, 544 us.
    inapposite, and the term “discriminate” retains its plain meaning as an intentional act.
    20 The plain meaning of the term “because”—as used in the preposition “because of”—is “for the
    reason that” or “on account of the cause that.” Webster ’3 Third 194. Thus, the terms following
    the “because of” clauses in the FHA supply the prohibited motivations for the intentional
    acts—i. e. to refuse to sell rent or otherwise make unavailable or deny—that the Act makes
    unlawful. See 42 U.S.C. §§ 3604, 3605.
    21 The FHA prohibits discrimination motivated by the following protected characteristics: race,
    color, religion, sex, handicap, familial status, and national origin. See 42 U.S.C. §§ 3604, 3605,
    3606.
    20
    BACKGROUND
    1. Statutory Background
    Congress enacted Title VIII of the Civil Rights Act of l968—c0mmonly known as
    the Fair Housing Act—“following urban unrest of the mid 19605 and in the aftermath of
    the assassination ofthe Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.” H.R. Rep. No. 71 l, 100th
    Cong, 2d Sess. 15 (1988). Congress’s goal in enacting the Fair Housing Act was to
    “provide, within constitutional limitations, for fair housing throughout the United States.”
    42 U.S.C. § 3601. To accomplish this purpose, the FHA made it unlawful to “refuse to
    sell or rent after the making of a bona fide offer, or to refuse to negotiate for the sale or
    rental of, or otherwise make unavailable or deny, a dwelling to any person because of
    race, color, religion, or national origin.” Id. § 3604(a). Moreover, the FHA made it
    unlawful “[t]o discriminate against any person in the terms, conditions, or privileges of
    sale or rental of a dwelling, or in the provision of services or facilities in connection
    therewith,” because of those same protected characteristics. Id. § 3604(b).
    Twenty years later, Congress amended the FHA, see Fair Housing Amendments
    Act of 1988, Pub. L. No. 100-430, 102 Stat. 1619 (“1988 Amendments”), to include sex,
    familial status, and handicap as protected characteristics. See 42 U.S.C. §§ 3604(a) (sex
    and familial status), (f)(1) (handicap); see also id. §§ 3604(f)(2), 3605, 3606. The 1988
    Amendments further vested HUD with the authority to engage in formal adjudications of
    housing discrimination claims, see id. § 3612, as well as the authority to issue
    at 235—36. Plaintiffs, not surprisingly, argue that § 3604(a)’s language is far more
    analogous to the sections of Title VII and the ADEA that provide for claims based on
    disparate treatment only. See Pls.’ Mem. at 14-16; see also 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(a)(l)
    (Title VII prohibition on disparate treatment); 29 U.S.C. § 623(a)(1) (ADEA prohibition
    on disparate treatment); Ricci v. DeStefano, 557 US. 557, 577 (2009) (noting that 42
    U.S.C. § 2000e-2(a)(l) provides for disparate treatment only); Smith, 544 US. at 236 n.6
    (stating that 29 U.S.C. § 623(a)(1) “does not encompass disparate-impact liability”) . I
    believe the plaintiffs’ analysis is far superior.
    The statutory language in § 3604(a) is materially identical to the statutory
    language used in the disparate-treatment prohibitions in Title VII and the ADEA.
    Compare 42 U.S.C. § 3604(a), with 42 U.S.C. § 20006-2(a)(1), and 29 U.S.C.
    § 623(a)(l). Indeed, just as Title VII and the ADEA make it unlawful to “refuse to hire
    or to discharge any individual, or otherwise to discriminate against any individual . . .
    because of such individual’s” protected characteristic, 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2(a)(l)
    (emphasis added); 29 U.S.C. § 623(a)(l), so too does the FHA make it unlawful to
    “refuse to sell or rent . . . or to refuse to negotiate . . . or otherwise make unavailable or
    deny, a dwelling to any person because of race, color, religion, sex, familial status, or
    national origin,” 42 U.S.C. § 3604(a) (emphasis added). It takes hutzpah (bordering on
    desperation) for defendants to argue that § 3604(a) more closely resembles the statutory
    21
    language in the disparate-impact provisions of Title VII and the ADEA,22 both of which
    contain explicit effects—focused language that is conspicuously lacking in § 3604(a).
    In addition to the clear meaning of the FHA’s plain text, the striking similarities
    between the statutory language of § 3604(a) and the disparate-treatment provisions of
    Title VII and the ADEA leave this Court with no doubt that Congress intended the FHA
    to prohibit intentional discrimination only. Put simply, Congress knows full well how to
    provide for disparate-impact liability, cf Conn. Nat 7 Bank, 503 US. at 253-54, and has
    made its intent to do so known in the past by including clear effects—based language when
    it so chooses, see Smith, 544 US. at 235-36. The fact that this type of effects-based
    language appears nowhere in the text of the FHA is, to say the least, an insurmountable
    obstacle to the defendants’ position regarding the plain meaning of the Fair Housing Act.
    B. Congressional Intent
    Even assuming, arguena’o, that the plain text of the Fair Housing Act did not
    unambiguously provide for disparate-treatment claims only, Congress’s intent to so limit
    the FHA would still be readily discernable. How so?
    1. Statutory Scheme
    When Congress amended the FHA in 1988, it did not make any changes to the
    22 Specifically, Title VII and the ADEA’s prohibitions on disparate impact state that it is
    unlawful for an employer “to limit, segregate, or classify his employees . . . in any way which
    would deprive or tend to deprive any individual of employment opportunities or otherwise
    adversely affect his status as an employee, because of such individual’s” protected
    characteristics. 42 U.S.C. § 20006—2(a)(2); 29 U.S.C. § 623(a)(2).
    22
    operative language of §§ 3604 and 3606. See generally Pub. L. No. 100-430. 102 Stat.
    1619 (1988 Amendments). Soon thereafter, however, Congress enacted two other
    anti—discrimination statutes that explicitly provide for disparate-impact claims by using
    clear effects-based language. In 1990, Congress enacted the Americans with Disabilities
    Act (“ADA”), which authorizes claims of disparate impact upon a showing that a
    particular practice “adversely affects” a disabled employee. See 42 U.S.C. § 121 12(b);
    see also Raytheon Co. v. Hernandez, 
    540 U.S. 44
    , 53 (2003) (noting disparate-impact
    claims are cognizable under the ADA). Indeed, the ADA contains numerous examples
    of explicit effects-based language, clearly indicating Congress’s intent to provide for
    liability, even in the absence of discriminatory intent. See, e.g., 42 U.S.C. § 121 12(b)(1)
    (“in a way that adversely affects”); id. at § 12112(b)(2) (“that has the effect of
    subjecting”); id. at § 12112(b)(3)(A) (“that have the effect of discrimination”).
    The same is true of Title VII. In order to codify the Supreme Court’s holding in
    Griggs, Congress amended Title VII in 1991 to include language expressly authorizing
    claims based on disparate impact. See Civil Rights Act of 1991, Pub. L. No. 102-166,
    105 Stat. 1071 (1991) (codified at 42 U.S.C. § 2000e—2(k)(1)(A) (“[a]n unlawful
    employment practice based on disparate impact is established under this subchapter only
    if. . . .”)); see also Griggs, 401 U.S. at 431. These two statutes powerfully demonstrate
    that Congress knows how to craft statutory language providing for disparate-impact
    liability when it intends to do so. Cf. Conn. Nat ’1 Bank, 503 U.S. at 253-54. As such,
    23
    the fact that Congress chose not to amend the FHA in 1988 to include clear effects-based
    language—while doing so at the same time for two similar anti-discrimination
    statutes—clearly illustrates that it never intended for claims of disparate impact to be
    cognizable under the FHA.
    Defendants further contend that three “exemptions from liability”23 added to the
    FHA in the 1988 Amendments—like the “reasonable factor other than age” (“RFOA”)24
    exemption in the ADEA, see 29 U.S.C. § 623(f)(1)-“presuppose the availability of
    disparate impact claims” under the FHA. See Defs.’ Mem. at 29; see also Smith, 544
    U.S. at 23 8—39 (discussing RFOA exemption in ADEA). I disagree. The RFOA
    exemption specifically authorizes conduct that is “otherwise prohibited [by the ADEA],”
    when that conduct is based on a reasonable factor other than age. See 29 U.S.C.
    § 623(f)(l). Unfortunately for defendants, however, the three provisions they cite in the
    23 See 42 U.S.C § 3605(c) (“Nothing in this subchapter prohibits a person engaged in the
    business of furnishing appraisals of real property to take into consideration factors other than
    [protected characteristics].”); id. § 3607(b)(1) (“Nothing in this subchapter limits the
    applicability of any reasonable local, State, or Federal restrictions regarding the maximum
    number of occupants permitted to occupy a dwelling”); id. § 3607(b)(4) (“Nothing in this
    subchapter prohibits conduct against a person because such person has been convicted by any
    court of competent jurisdiction of the illegal manufacture or distribution of a controlled
    substance”).
    24 The RFOA exemption in the ADEA states—in pertinent part—that
    It shall not be unlawful for an employer, employment agency, or labor
    organization . . . to take any action otherwise prohibited under [this act]
    where age is a bona fide occupational qualification reasonably necessary to
    the normal operation of the particular business, or where the
    differentiation is based on reasonable factors other than age.
    29 U.S.C. § 623(f)(l) (emphasis added).
    24
    FHA merely provide safe-harbors, clarifying that nothing in the FHA prohibits the
    specific conduct discussed. These provisions make no mention of conduct “otherwise
    prohibited” under the FHA. See 42 U.S.C § 3605(0); id. § 3607(b)(l); id. § 3607(b)(4).
    Rather, they describe conduct that Congress intended to protect with a “complete
    exemption from FHA scrutiny.” City ofEdmonds v. Oxford House, Inc, 514 US. 725,
    728 (1995). Moreover, under the burden-shifting framework applied to claims of
    disparate-treatment by many jurisdictions, see, e. g., 2922 Sherman Avenue Tenants’
    Ass ’n, 444 F.3d at 682, these safe-harbor provisions provide per se legitimate bases as
    defenses to claims of disparate treatment. Considering the unambiguous meaning of the
    FHA’s plain text, and the lack of any language referencing conduct otherwise prohibited
    under the FHA, defendants’ contention that the cited provisions presuppose the presence
    of disparate-impact liability appears to be nothing more than wishful thinking on steroids!
    2. The McCarran-Ferguson Act
    Congressional intent to provide only for FHA claims based on intentional
    discrimination is evident for yet another reason: the expansion of the FHA to include
    disparate-impact liability against insurers would run afoul of previously enacted federal
    legislation.25 Congress enacted the McCarran-Ferguson Act (“McCarran-Ferguson”), 59
    25 It would simply defy logic for Congress to intentionally draft legislation in such a way as to
    contradict previously enacted federal statutes. Cf. FDA v. Brown & Williamson Tobacco Corp,
    529 US. 120, 137-39 (2000) (observing that Congress could not have intended to grant the FDA
    authority to regulate tobacco products, where doing so would run afoul of previously established
    congressional policy); Smoking Everywhere, Inc. v. FDA, 680 F, Supp. 2d 62, 70 (RJL) (D.D.C.
    2010) (“Because this result would effectively dismantle the existing regulatory wall Congress
    25
    Stat. 33 (1945) (codified at 15 U.S.C. §§ 1011 et seq), to ensure the primacy of state law
    in the realm of insurance regulation. See id. § 1012(a) (“The business of insurance, and
    every person engaged therein, shall be subject to the laws of the several States which
    relate to the regulation or taxation of such business”); see also Ambrose v. Blue Cross &
    Blue Shield of Va, Inc, 
    891 F. Supp. 1153
    , 1167 (ED. Va. 1995) (“Congress declared
    the primacy of state law in the regulation of the business of insurance”).
    McCarran-Ferguson states that “[n]o Act of Congress shall be construed to invalidate,
    impair, or supersede any law enacted by any State for the purpose of regulating the
    business of insurance, or which imposes a fee or tax upon such business, unless such Act
    specifically relates to the business of insurance.” 15 U.S.C. § 1012(b);26 see also
    Nationwide Mut. Ins. Co. v. Cisneros, 
    52 F.3d 1351
    , 1360-61 (6th Cir. 1995) (“[B]ecause
    the [FHA] does not mention insurance, it is covered by the McCarran-Ferguson Act and
    cannot be construed in such a way as to invalidate, impair, or supersede any state law
    enacted to regulate the business of insurance”).
    The expansion of the FHA to include disparate-impact liability would not only
    have a wide-ranging disruptive effect on the pricing and provision of homeowner’s
    insurance, but would also require insurers to collect and analyze certain types of
    erected between tobacco products and drug-device combinations, 1 can easily infer that Congress
    did not intend tobacco products to be drugs merely because they deliver nicotine.” (emphasis in
    original)).
    26 Cf. Humana Inc. v. Forsyth, 525 US. 299, 310 (1999) (“When federal law does not directly
    conflict with state regulation, and when application of the federal law would not frustrate any
    declared state policy or interfere with a State’s administrative regime, the McCarran-Ferguson
    26
    race—based data on their clients and prospective clients.27 See Essman Affidavit W 5-9
    (describing steps required before one of plaintiffs” members will be able to collect and
    analyze data on its customers’ protected characteristics in order to ensure compliance
    with Disparate-Impact Rule). These practiceswexpressly prohibited in many
    states28—will regularly result in the FHA being “reverse-preempted” McCarran-Ferguson.
    See Ojo v. Farmers Group, Inc, 
    600 F.3d 1205
    , 1209 (9th Cir. 2010) (en banc) (stating
    that application of the FHA may be reverse-preempted if it “invalidate[s], impair[s], or
    supersede[s] the provisions of the Texas Insurance Code”). Indeed, recognition of
    disparate-impact liability under the FHA additionally raises serious concerns regarding
    widespread federal encroachment upon state insurance regulation. See Saunders v.
    Farmers Ins. Exchange, 
    537 F.3d 961
    , 967 (8th Cir. 2008) (noting that suits “challenging
    the racially disparate impact of industry-wide rate classifications may usurp core
    rate-making functions of the State’s administrative regime”).29
    Act does not preclude its application”).
    27 Insurers would, of course, also be required to collect and analyze data on their clients’ and
    prospective clients’ other protected characteristics, including color, religion, sex, familial status,
    national origin, and handicap as well.
    28 State insurance regulations ordinarily prohibit the consideration of protected characteristics in
    the evaluation and pooling of risk, and at least one state prohibits even the collection of such
    data. See Md. Code Ann. Ins. § 27-501(c)(1) (“[A]n insurer or insurance producer may not make
    an inquiry about race, creed, color, or national origin in an insurance form, questionnaire, or
    other manner of requesting general information that relates to an application for insurance”); see
    also, e.g., 215 Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/424(3); Alaska Stat. § 2136.090; Ky. Rev. Stat. Ann. §
    304.12-085; Mass Gen. Laws Ann. ch. 175 § 4C; Me. Rev. Stat. tit. 24-A, § 2303(1)(G); Okla.
    Stat. Ann. tit. 36, § 985; SC. Code Ann. § 38-75-1210(B)(1); Tenn. Code Ann. §
    56-5-303(a)(2)(d); Tex. Ins. Code Ann. § 544.002.
    29 See also NAACP v. Am. Family Mut. Ins. Co, 
    978 F.2d 287
    , 290—91 (7th Cir. 1992) (“Risk
    27
    Moreover, in order to ensure that their facially neutral underwriting practices do
    not result in any disparate outcomes amongst protected groups, insurers would be
    required to turn a blind eye to established actuarial principles in favor of race-based
    insurance decisions. See Rudolph Affidavit W 1 1-15; see also Michael J. Miller,
    Disparate Impact and Unfairly Discriminatory Insurance Rates, Casualty Actuarial
    Society E-Forum 276, 277 (2009) (describing risk-based pricing decisions as being in
    “inevitable and irreconcilable conflict” with disparate-impact liability).30 Indeed,
    insurers “would have to use the newly-acquired data to adjust outcomes for individual
    insureds based solely on this data—Le. adjusting (upward or downward) the premium
    charged to achieve parity of ‘impact.”’ Rudolph Affidavit 1l15; see also Christy
    Affidavit W 5—6; Doto Affidavit W 5-6; McCarthy Affidavit W 6-7. No reasonable
    interpretation of Congress’s intent would conclude that it intended for the FHA to act in
    discrimination is not race discrimination . . . . No insurer openly uses race as a ground of
    ratemaking, but is a higher rate per $1,000 of coverage for fire insurance in an inner city
    neighborhood attributable to risks of arson or to racial animus?”).
    30 Kathleen Rudolph, a Vice President of Business Compliance at one of plaintiffs” member
    organizations clarifies that——if the FHA provides for disparate-impact liability against providers
    of homeowner’s insurance—~her employer will be forced to
    undertake three steps to assure effective compliance with the HUD rule, and each
    of those steps would mark departures from [the company’s] current business
    practices. The three-step process would comprise: (l) collecting data on
    characteristics of [the company’s] insureds of interest to HUD (including race,
    religion, gender and national origin); (2) cross—referencing this newly-collected
    data against the pricing determined by the current risk assessment and
    differentiation model . . . ; and (3) making corrective underwriting, rating and
    pricing adjustments to recalibrate away from risk and towards parity of ‘impact.’
    Each of these steps would create fundamental conflicts with [the company’s]
    existing State regulatory obligations.
    28
    such a way as to “invalidate, impair, or supersede any law enacted by any State for the
    purpose ofregulating the business of insurance.” 15 U.S.C. § 1012(b); cf Ricci, 557
    US. at 581 (“Allowing employers to violate the disparate-treatment prohibition [of Title
    VII] based on a mere good-faith fear of disparate-impact liability would encourage
    race-based action at the slightest hint of disparate impact”); id. at 594 (Scalia, J .,
    concurring) (“[I]t is clear that Title VII not only permits but affirmatively requires
    [remedial race-based actions] when a disparate—impact violation would otherwise result.”
    (emphasis in original)). To the contrary, it is utterly incomprehensible that Congress
    would intentionally provide for disparate-impact liability against insurers in the FHA,
    where doing so would require those same insurers to collect and evaluate race-based data,
    thereby engaging in conduct expressly proscribed by state law. See supra note 28.
    C. Judicial Treatment
    Finally, defendants contend that previous holdings of other Federal Circuit Courts
    that recognized disparate-impact liability under the FHA, preclude this Court from
    finding that the FHA unambiguously prohibits disparate treatment only. See Defs.’
    Mem. at 20—21. Please! The Supreme Court itself has made clear that a statute is not
    ambiguous simply because there is a lack of judicial consensus as to its proper meaning,
    see Reno v. Koray, 515 US. 50, 64-65 (1995),31 and “judges cannot cause a clear text to
    Rudolph Affidavit 11 12.
    31 See also Hoffman v. Blaski, 363 US. 335, 358 (1960) (Frankfurter, J ., dissenting) (noting that
    the Court’s interpretation of the statute at issue was “contrary to the rulings of every Court of
    29
    become ambiguous by ignoring it,” Deal v. United States, 508 US. 129, 136 (1993).
    And as I noted previously, our own Circuit Court has never ruled on the specific
    question of whether disparate-impact liability is cognizable under the FHA.32 While
    eleven Circuit Courts of Appeals to date have addressed this question in the affirmative,33
    those decisions are not only not binding upon this Court, but more importantly were—~for
    the most part—decided before the Supreme Court‘s decision in Smith v. City of Jackson,
    where the Supreme Court made it clear that an inquiry into the availability of
    disparate-impact liability turns on the presence, or absence, of effects-based language.
    See Smith, 544 US. at 23 5-36; see also supra note 5.
    Moreover, it is remarkable that none of the Circuit Courts that have recognized
    claims of disparate impact subsequent to the Supreme Court’s decision in Smith have
    either discussed Smith in any detail, or reconsidered their Circuit precedent in light of its
    holding. See, e.g., Inclusive Cmtys. Project, Inc. v. Tex. Dep’t ofHous. and Cmty.
    Appeals but one which has considered the problem, and is contrary to the view of more than half
    the District Courts as well").
    32 One district judge in this Circuit, however, did rule on this very issue in the aftermath of the
    Supreme Court’s decision in Smith. See Nat ’l Cmty. Reinvestment Coal. v. Accredited Home
    Lenders Holding Co. , 
    573 F. Supp. 2d 70
     (EGS) (D.D.C. 2008). After referencing the parties’
    arguments—both for and against recognition of disparate-impact liability under the F HA~—the
    judge ruled that “Smith does not preclude disparate impact claims pursuant to the FHA.” Id at
    79. Unfortunately, however, he did not choose to explain in his opinion the reasoning behind
    his conclusion. Accordingly, it was of no assistance to this Court in resolving this case.
    33 Interestingly, the Second Circuit reached its conclusion in Huntington Branch, NAACP v.
    Town of Huntington only to have the Solicitor General argue to the contrary in its amicus brief
    before the Supreme Court. See Huntington Branch, NAACP, 844 F.2d at 93 5-36; Brief for
    United States as Amicus Curiae at 10, 14, 16, Town of Huntington v. Huntington Branch,
    NAACP, 
    109 S. Ct. 276
     (1989) (No. 87-1961).
    30
    rules—following a notice and comment period—«to effectuate the goals of the FHA, see
    id. § 3614a. The 1988 Amendments did not, however, make any changes to the
    operative language of § 3604(a) & (b) or § 3606. See Pub. L. No. 100-430, 102 Stat.
    1619.
    II. Promulgation of the Disparate-Impact Rule
    In the absence of explicit language providing for disparate-impact liability when it
    was enacted in 1968, it is not surprising that there has been a difference of opinion along
    ideological/political lines—since at least the Supreme Court’s decision in Griggs v. Duke
    Power Co., 401 US. 424, 432 (1971)—as to whether or not such claims were cognizable
    under the FHA.3 To date, the Supreme Court has not had the opportunity to answer this
    particular question.4 And, while eleven Circuit Courts of Appeals have found that
    3 Compare, e. g., Remarks on Signing the Fair Housing Amendments Act of 1988, 24 Weekly
    Comp. Pres. Doc. 1140, 1141 (Sept. 13, 1988) (President Reagan stating that 1988 FHA
    amendments did “not represent any congressional or executive branch endorsement of the notion,
    expressed in some judicial opinions, that [T]itle 8 violations may be established by a showing of
    disparate impact . . . without discriminatory intent . . . . Title 8 speaks only to intentional
    discrimination”), and Brown v. Artery Org, Inc, 
    654 F. Supp. 1106
    , 1115 (HHG) (D.D.C. 1987)
    (discriminatory impact does not establish FHA violation by a private actors), with 134 Cong.
    Reg. 23,711 (Sen. Kennedy) (describing President Reagan’s statement as “flatly inconsistent with
    Congress’s understanding of the law”).
    4 Since 2011, the Supreme Court has granted certiorari three times on the issue of whether
    disparate-impact liability is cognizable under the FHA, most recently last month Texas
    Department of Housing and Community Affairs v. Inclusive Communities Project. See No.
    13-1371, 
    2014 WL 4916193
     (US. Oct. 2, 2014) (Texas Department ofHousing); Twp. ofMount
    Holly v. Mt. Holly Gardens Citizens in Action, Inc. (Mount Holly), 
    133 S. Ct. 2824
     (2013);
    Magner v. Gallagher, 
    132 S. Ct. 548
     (2011). While Texas Department of Housing is currently
    before the Court, and likely to be decided this term, both Mount Holly and Magner were settled
    before the Court could decide the issue. The circumstances behind the Magner settlement,
    however, are particularly troubling. Indeed, a Congressional Joint Staff Report found that—in
    negotiating a quid pro quo deal that facilitated Magner’s settlementuthen-Assistant Attorney
    4
    Aflairs, 
    747 F.3d 275
    , 280 (5th Cir. 2014), cert. granted, No. 13-1371, 
    2014 WL 4916193
    (US. Oct. 2, 2014); Aflordable Hous. Dev. Corp. v. City ofFresno, 
    433 F.3d 1182
    ,
    1 194-95 (9th Cir. 2006); Darst-Webbe TenantAss ’n Bd. v. St. Louis Hons. Auth, 
    417 F.3d 898
    , 902 (8th Cir. 2005). Indeed, Circuit Judge Steven Colloton of the Eighth
    Circuit appropriately, but unsuccessfully, cautioned his colleagues that “there has been
    little consideration . . . and virtually no discussion of [the textual basis for
    disparate—impact liability under the FHA] since the Court in Smith explained how the text
    of Title VII justified the decision in Griggs,” and “recent developments in the law suggest
    that the issue is appropriate for careful review.” See Gallagher v. Magner, 
    636 F.3d 380
    ,
    383 (8th Cir. 2010) (Colloton, J., dissenting from denial of rehearing en bane).
    In short, Smith represents a sea change in approach to the analysis of statutory
    provisions with respect to disparate-impact liability, compare Smith, 544 US. at 235-3 6,
    with Griggs, 401 US. at 432-35, and thus, defendants’ reliance on pre-Smith case law as
    supporting their position is, to say the least, unavailing.
    CONCLUSION
    This is, yet another example of an Administrative Agency trying desperately to
    write into law that which Congress never intended to sanction.34 While doing so might
    have been more understandable—and less troubling—prior to the Supreme Court’s
    34 See, e. g., Brown & Williamson Tobacco Corp, 529 US. at 137-39 (attempted FDA regulation
    oftobacco products); Avenal Power Center v. EPA, 
    787 F. Supp. 2d 1
    , 4 (RJL) (D.D.C. 2011)
    (self-serving EPA misinterpretation of Clean Air Act time requirements); Smoking Everywhere,
    31
    decision in Smith, in its aftermath it is nothing less than an artful misinterpretation of
    Congress’s intent that is, frankly, too clever by half. Defendants, of course, were
    somehow hoping that a favorable Chevron analysis would muster the judicial deference
    necessary to salvage their much desired Rule. But alas, it did not. Fortunately for us all,
    however, the Supreme Court is now perfectly positioned in Texas Department of Housing
    to finally address this issue in the not-too—distant future. In the meantime, for all of the
    foregoing reasons, the Court GRANTS plaintiffs’ Motion for Summary Judgment and
    DENIES defendants’ Motion to Dismiss or, in the Alternative, for Summary Judgment.
    Accordingly, the United States Departments of Housing and Urban Development’s
    Disparate Impact Rule, promulgated in 78 Fed. Reg. 11,460-1 1,482, and codified at 24
    C.F.R. § 100.500, is hereby VACATED. An Order consistent with this decision
    accompanies this Memorandum Opinion.
    RICHARD . LE N
    United States D1strict Judge
    Inc, 680 F. Supp. 2d at 70 (RJL) (attempted FDA regulation of e—cigarettes).
    32
    disparate-impact claims are cognizable under the FHA,5 the overwhelming majority of
    these opinions preceded the Supreme Court’s decision in Smith v. City of Jackson, 544
    US. 228 (2005), which set forth the appropriate analytical framework when a court is
    attempting to discern whether disparate-impact liability arises in a particular statutory
    context. As for our Circuit, to date it too has never addressed this issue. See, e. g,
    Greater New Orleans Fair Hous. Action Ctr. v. US. Dep ’t of Hous. and Urban Dev., 
    639 F.3d 1078
    , 1085 (DC. Cir. 2011) (“We have not decided whether [the FHA] permits
    disparate impact claims”); 2922 Sherman Avenue Tenants ’ Ass ’n v. District of Columbia,
    
    444 F.3d 673
    , 679 (DC. Cir. 2006). However, on November 16, 2011—just nine days
    after the Supreme Court granted certiorari in Magner v. Gallagher to address this very
    issue, see Magner, 
    132 S. Ct. 548
     (2011)—HUD, calculatingly, proposed a rule that
    would specifically provide for disparate-impact liability under the FHA. See
    General Thomas Perez “exert[ed] arbitrary authority” to settle the case and “placed ideology over
    objectivity and politics over the rule of law . . . . Rather than allowing the Supreme Court to
    freely and impartially adjudicate an appeal that the Court had affirmatively chosen to hear,
    [Perez] openly worked to get the appeal off of the Court’s docket.” Staff of H. Comm. On
    Oversight and Gov’t Reform et a1., 113th Cong, DOJ’s “Quid Pro Quo ” with St. Paul: How
    Assistant Attorney General Thomas Perez Manipulated Justice and Ignored the Rule ofLaw 64
    (Comm. Rep. 2013).
    5 See, e.g., Langlois v. Abington Hous, Auth, 
    207 F.3d 43
    , 49-50 (lst Cir. 2000); Huntington
    Branch, NAACP v. Town ofHuntington, 
    844 F.2d 926
    , 935-36 (2d Cir. 1988); Resident Advisory
    Bd. v. Rizzo, 
    564 F.2d 126
    , 146-47 (3d Cir. 1977); Smith v. Town ofClarkton, 
    682 F.2d 1055
    ,
    1065 (4th Cir. 1982); Hanson v. Veterans Admin, 
    800 F.2d 1381
    , 1386 (5th Cir. 1986); Arthur v.
    City ofToledo, 
    782 F.2d 565
    , 574-75 (6th Cir. 1986); Metro. Hous. Dev. Corp. v. Vill. of
    Arlington Heights, 
    558 F.2d 1283
    , 1290 (7th Cir. 1977); United States v. City ofBlack Jack, 
    508 F.2d 1179
    , 1184-85 (8th Cir. 1974); Halet v. Wend Inv. Co, 
    672 F.2d 1305
    , 1311 (9th Cir.
    1982); Mountain Side Mobile Estates P ’ship v. US. Dep ’t ofHous, and Urban Dev., 
    56 F.3d 1243
    , 1250-51 (10th Cir. 1995); United States v. Marengo Cnty. Comm ’n, 
    731 F.2d 1546
    , 1559
    5
    Implementation of the Fair Housing Act’s Discriminatory Effects Standard, 76 Fed. Reg.
    70,921, 70,921 (Nov. 16, 201 1) (HUD proposed “to prohibit housing practices with a
    discriminatory effect, even where there has been no intent to discriminate”).
    Following HUD’s notice of the proposed rule, plaintiffs submitted comments
    explaining their numerous concerns about the harmful effects the Rule was likely to
    cause.6 See JA at 372-3 83, 455-59. Despite these concerns—and those raised by many
    others——HUD promulgated the final Rule without substantial changes on February 15,
    2013.7 See 78 Fed. Reg. 1 1,460. Not surprisingly, the preamble to the Disparate—Impact
    Rule expressly extended the availability of disparate—impact liability to the provision and
    pricing of homeowner’s insurance for the first time. See id. at 11,475. So much for any
    n.20 (11th Cir. 1984).
    6 Plaintiffs’ concerns included, inter alia, (1) the statutory language of the FHA did not provide a
    cause of action for disparate-impact liability; (2) in many states, the application of the rule would
    result in reverse—preemption of the FHA pursuant to the McCarran-Ferguson Act, 15 U.S.C. §§
    1011 et seq; (3) the rule was premature given the fact that the Supreme Court had recently
    granted certiorari in Magner, and was poised to determine this very issue; (4) the analytic
    framework for determining the validity of a disparate-impact claim was at variance with the
    burden—of-proof framework laid out in Wards Cove Packing Co. v. A tonio, 490 US. 642 (1989),
    for disparate-impact claims in non-Title VII cases; and (5) the application of disparate-impact
    liability to the provision and pricing of homeowner’s insurance would require a disastrous
    departure from long-established risk-based underwriting practices. See Plaintiffs’ Joint
    Appendix of Administrative Record Materials (“JA”) [Dkt. #36] at 372-3 83, Comments from the
    National Association of Mutual Insurance Companies on the Proposed Rule (January 17, 2012);
    see id. at 455-59, Comments from the American Insurance Association on the Proposed Rule
    (January 17, 2012).
    7 Notably, in a recent decision from the United States District Court for the Northern District of
    Illinois, Judge Amy St. Eve ruled that “HUD’s response to the insurance industry’s concerns
    [regarding the Disparate Impact Rule] was arbitrary and capricious,” and remanded the case to
    HUD “for further explanation.” Properly Cas. Insurers Ass ’17 ofAm. v. Donovan, No. 13 C
    8564, at 46-47 (ND. 111. Sept. 3, 2014). Judge St. Eve found that HUD failed to adequately
    address the insurance industry’s concerns or explain its decisions regarding application of the
    6
    contention that the FHA unambiguously provided for such liability!
    The Disparate—Impact Rule itself states that “[l]iability may be established under
    the Fair Housing Act based on a practice’s discriminatory effect . . . even if the practice
    was not motivated by a discriminatory intent.” 24 C.F.R. § 100.500. The Rule defines a
    practice as having a “discriminatory effect” where “it actually or predictably results in a
    disparate impact on a group of persons or creates, increases, reinforces, or perpetuates
    segregated housing patterns because of race, color, religion, sex, handicap, familial status,
    or national origin.” Id. § lOO.500(a). A practice shown to have a discriminatory effect
    may still be legal ifit is supported by a legally sufficientjustification. See id. § 100.500.
    “A legally sufficient justification exists where the challenged practice . . . [i]s necessary
    to achieve one or more substantial, legitimate, nondiscriminatory interests . . . [and]
    [t]hose interests could not be served by another practice that has a less discriminatory
    effect.” Id. § lOO.500(b)(l)(i)—(ii).
    The Disparate-Impact Rule employs a burden-shifting framework for assessing
    disparate-impact liability under the FHA. See id. § 100.500(c)(1)-(3). Initially, “the
    charging party . . . has the burden of proving that a challenged practice caused or
    predictably will cause a discriminatory effect.” Id. § 100.500(c)(l). Ifthe plaintiff or
    charging party meets this burden, “the respondent or defendant has the burden of proving
    that the challenged practice is necessary to achieve one or more [of their] substantial,
    Disparate-Impact Rule to the provision and pricing of homeowner’s insurance. See id.
    7
    legitimate, nondiscriminatory interests.” Id. § 100.500(c)(2). Finally, if the respondent
    or defendant satisfies its burden, the plaintiff or charging party “may still prevail upon
    proving that the substantial, legitimate, nondiscriminatory interests supporting the
    challenged practice could be served by another practice that has a less discriminatory
    effect.” Id. § 100.500(c)(3).
    Importantly here, the Rule expressly applies to entities that provide homeowner’s
    insurance, such as plaintiffs’ members. See 78 Fed. Reg. 11,460, 11,475. Indeed, the
    proposed notice of rule-making explicitly listed the “provision and pricing of
    homeowner’s insurance” as an example of a “housing policy or practice” that may have a
    disparate impact on a class of persons, 76 Fed. Reg. 70,921, 70,924, and in the final
    rule-making, HUD directly considered some of the very concerns that were raised by
    insurers during the notice-and-comment period, but did not meaningfully alter the
    substance of the Rule in response to those concerns, see 78 Fed. Reg. 1 1,460, 11,475.
    111. Procedural History
    Plaintiffs commenced this action on June 26, 2013. On August 15, 2013,
    however, defendants filed an Unopposed Motion to Stay Proceedings (“Motion to Stay”)
    [Dkt. #12] because the Supreme Court had recently granted certiorari in Mount Holly8
    8 Petitioners in Mount Holly filed their Petition for a Writ of Certiorari on June 11, 2012. See
    Petition for a Writ of Certiorari, Mount Holly, No. 1 1-1507 (June 11, 2012), available at
    http://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/1 1-1507-Mount-Holly-v.-Mount-H
    olly—Gardens-Citizens-in-Action-Petition.pdf. The Supreme Court granted certiorari on June 17,
    2013, solely on the issue of whether “disparate impact claims [are] cognizable under the Fair
    8
    (June 17, 2013) to resolve the precise statutory question at issue in this case, and a stay of
    proceedings—pending the Supreme Court’s decision—would “at a minimum streamline
    the proceedings in this case, if not eliminate the need for litigation entirely.” See Mot. to
    Stay at 1. I granted the motion by minute order on August 29, 2013.
    On November 15, 2013 the Supreme Court dismissed the writ of certiorari in
    Mount Holly because the parties had reached a settlement. On December 16, 2013, the
    parties filed a joint status report and motion, informing me of the Mount Holly dismissal,
    and seeking a lift ofthe stay in this case. See Joint Mot. to Lift the Stay and Status
    Report [Dkt. #14]. I granted the parties’ motion on December 20, 2013, and set a
    briefing schedule for dispositive motions. See Order (Dec. 20, 2013) [Dkt. #15]. That
    same day, plaintiffs filed their Motion for Summary Judgment. See Pls.’ Mot.
    Defendants then filed their Motion to Dismiss or, in the Alternative, for Summary
    Judgment on February 3, 2014. See Defs.’ Mot. Following full briefing ofthe issues,9 I
    heard oral argument on the parties’ motions on July 22, 2014.10
    Housing Act.” See Mount Holly, 
    133 S. Ct. 2824
     (2013); see also supra note 4.
    9 See Plaintiffs’ Opposition to Defendants’ Motion to Dismiss or for Summary Judgment and
    Reply in Support of Plaintiffs’ Motion for Summary Judgment (“Pls.’ Reply”) (Feb. 24, 2014)
    [Dkt. #27]; Defendants’ Reply Memorandum in Support of Their Motion to Dismiss or, in the
    Alternative, for Summary Judgment (“Defs’ Reply”) (Mar. 18, 2014) [Dkt. #31].
    ‘0 At the conclusion of oral argument, I invited the parties to submit supplemental briefs on any
    issues raised during the arguments. See Transcript of Oral Argument at 49:3-24, American
    Insurance Ass ’n v. US. Dep ’t ofHous. and Urban Dev., No. 1:13-cv—00966 (D.D.C. July 22,
    2014). The parties submitted their supplemental briefs on August 5, 2014. See Supplemental
    Memorandum to Plaintiffs’ Motion for Summary Judgment (“‘Pls.’ Supp’l Mem.”) (Aug. 5,
    2014) [Dkt. #38]; Supplemental Memorandum to Defendants” Motion to Dismiss or, in the
    Alternative, for Summary Judgment (“Defs’ Supp’l Mem.”) (Aug. 5, 2014) [Dkt. #39].
    9
    STANDARD OF REVIEW
    1. Rule 12(b) Dismissal
    The court may dismiss a complaint or any portion of it for lack of subject—matter
    jurisdiction or for failure to state a claim upon which relief may be granted. See Fed. R.
    Civ. P. 12(b)(1), (6). In considering a motion to dismiss, the court may only consider
    “the facts alleged in the complaint, any documents either attached to or incorporated in
    the complaint and matters of which [the court] may take judicial notice.” E.E. O. C. v. St.
    Francis Xavier Parochial Sch, 
    117 F.3d 621
    , 624 (DC. Cir. 1997). To survive a motion
    to dismiss, a plaintiff must plead “factual content that allows the court to draw the
    reasonable inference that the defendant is liable for the misconduct alleged.” Ashcroft v.
    Iqbal, 
    556 U.S. 662
    , 678 (2009). On a motion to dismiss for lack of standing, a trial
    court may allow the plaintiff to supplement the complaint with affidavits to demonstrate
    standing. See Wart/z v. Seldin, 
    422 U.S. 490
    , 501-02 (1975); see also Rainbow/PUSH
    Coal. v. FCC, 
    396 F.3d 1235
    , 1239 (DC. Cir. 2005) (permitting affidavits in response to
    a motion to dismiss for want of standing).
    In considering a motion under Rule 12(b), the court must construe the complaint
    “in favor of the plaintiff, who must be granted the benefit of all inferences that can be
    derived from the facts alleged.” Schuler v. United States, 
    617 F.2d 605
    , 608 (DC. Cir.
    1979) (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). However, factual
    allegations—even though assumed to be true—must still "be enough to raise a right to
    10.
    

Document Info

Docket Number: Civil Action No. 2013-0966

Judges: Judge Richard J. Leon

Filed Date: 11/3/2014

Precedential Status: Precedential

Modified Date: 10/19/2024

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