David J. Lychuk and Mary K. Lychuk v. Commissioner , 116 T.C. No. 27 ( 2001 )


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  •                         116 T.C. No. 27
    UNITED STATES TAX COURT
    DAVID J. LYCHUK AND MARY K. LYCHUK, ET AL.,1 Petitioners v.
    COMMISSIONER OF INTERNAL REVENUE, Respondent
    Docket Nos. 11794-99, 11855-99,           Filed May 31, 2001.
    11863-99.
    A acquires and services multiyear installment
    contracts as its sole business operations. A acquires
    each contract at 65 percent of its face value and is
    entitled to all principal and interest payments. A’s
    employees perform various credit review services in
    order to decide whether to acquire each contract
    offered to A and, as to the contracts which A chooses
    to acquire, perform additional services in paying the
    sellers. R determined that all of A’s salaries,
    benefits, and overhead (printing, telephone, computer,
    rent, and utilities) relating to its acquisition (and
    not to its service) operation were capital
    expenditures. R also determined that A had to
    capitalize professional fees and commissions
    1
    Cases of the following petitioners are consolidated
    herewith: Edward C. and Virginia M. Blasius, docket No. 11855-
    99; James E. and Mary Jo Blasius, docket No. 11863-99.
    - 2 -
    (collectively, offering expenditures) relating to its
    offering of notes in 1993 and a second offering that
    was planned in 1993 and abandoned in 1994.
    Held: The salaries and benefits are capital
    expenditures; A’s payment of these items was directly
    related to its anticipated acquisitions of assets with
    expected useful lives exceeding 1 year.
    Held, further, The overhead expenses may be
    deducted currently under sec. 162(a), I.R.C.; A’s
    payment of these items was not directly related to the
    anticipated acquisitions, and any future benefit that A
    received from these expenses was incidental to its
    payment of them.
    Held, further, sec. 165(a), I.R.C., allows A to
    deduct the portion of the capitalized salaries and
    benefits that was attributable to installment contracts
    which it never acquired; A may deduct those amounts for
    the respective years in which it ascertained that it
    would not acquire the related contracts.
    Held, further, A must capitalize all of the
    offering expenditures; A’s payment of these
    expenditures was anticipated to provide A with
    significant future benefits.
    Held, further, sec. 165(a), I.R.C., allows A to
    deduct in 1994 the portion of the capitalized offering
    expenditures that was attributable to the abandoned
    offering.
    Oksana O. Xenos, for petitioners.*
    Eric R. Skinner, for respondent.
    LARO, Judge:   Petitioners petitioned the Court to
    redetermine deficiencies attributable primarily to adjustments
    which respondent made to their income from a subchapter S
    *
    Briefs of amici curiae were filed by Robert A. Rudnick, B.
    John Williams, Jr., James F. Warren, and Richard J. Gagnon, Jr.,
    as counsel for Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (FHLMC),
    and by Felix B. Laughlin and Anna-Liza Harris as counsel for
    Federal National Mortgage Association (FNMA).
    - 3 -
    corporation, Automotive Credit Corporation (ACC).    Respondent
    determined a $1,202 deficiency in the 1993 Federal income tax of
    David J. and Mary K. Lychuk.    Respondent determined $2,149 and
    $11,461 deficiencies in the 1993 and 1994 Federal income taxes,
    respectively, of Edward C. and Virginia M. Blasius.    Respondent
    determined $23,683 and $89,609 deficiencies in the 1993 and 1994
    Federal income taxes, respectively, of James E. and Mary Jo
    Blasius.2    Both Blasius couples alleged in their respective
    petitions that they had an overpayment for 1994 on account of
    costs which ACC failed to deduct for that year.
    Following concessions, we must decide whether ACC must
    capitalize certain expenditures made during 1993 and 1994.      The
    expenditures were generally ACC’s payment of (1) salaries,
    benefits, and overhead (printing, telephone, computer, rent, and
    utilities) relating to its acquisition of retail installment
    contracts (installment contracts) in the ordinary course of its
    business (installment contracts expenditures) and (2)
    professional fees and commissions relating to a private placement
    offering of notes that ACC accomplished in 1993 and a second
    offering that ACC planned in 1993 and abandoned in 1994
    (collectively, PPM expenditures).    We hold that ACC must
    capitalize both groups of expenditures to the extent described
    herein.     We must also decide whether ACC may deduct the portion
    2
    James Blasius is Edward Blasius’ son.
    - 4 -
    of the capitalized installment contracts expenditures relating to
    installment contracts which it never acquired.    We hold it may
    deduct that portion under section 165(a).3    We must also decide
    whether ACC may deduct the portion of the PPM expenditures
    relating to the abandoned offering.     We hold it may deduct that
    portion for 1994 under section 165(a).
    FINDINGS OF FACT
    The parties have stipulated many of the facts.    We
    incorporate herein the parties’ stipulation of facts and the
    exhibits submitted therewith.   We find the stipulated facts
    accordingly.   Each petitioning couple is a husband and wife who
    resided in Michigan when their petition was filed.    Each
    petitioning couple filed a joint Federal income tax return for
    the relevant years.
    ACC is a cash method taxpayer that was incorporated in 1992
    and elected shortly thereafter to be taxed as an S corporation
    for Federal income tax purposes.   It was formed to provide
    alternate financing for purchasers of used automobiles or light
    trucks (collectively, automobiles) who have marginal credit.    Its
    sole business operation is (1) the acquisition of installment
    contracts from automobile dealers (dealers) who have sold
    automobiles to high credit risk individuals and (2) the servicing
    3
    Unless otherwise indicated, section references are to the
    Internal Revenue Code applicable to the relevant years. Rule
    references are to the Tax Court Rules of Practice and Procedure.
    - 5 -
    of those contracts.   Its primary business activities are credit
    investigation, credit evaluation, documentation, and the
    monitoring of collections on installment contracts.      Its business
    is conducted out of space that it rents in Bingham Farms,
    Michigan, pursuant to a 5-year lease that began on October 22,
    1992.   Under the lease, ACC pays monthly rent of $3,137.50 during
    the first 24 months and $3,250 afterwards.
    ACC’s shareholders and their respective ownership interests
    are as follows:
    1993     1994
    James and Mary Jo Blasius              77%      86%
    Edward and Virginia Blasius            13       14
    Donald Terns                            5        0
    David Lychuk                            5        0
    None of the shareholders, except James Blasius, works in ACC’s
    daily business.   The other male shareholders serve as the
    directors of ACC’s board.
    ACC’s key management personnel includes its president, James
    Blasius, its vice president and chief financial officer, Steven
    Balan, its credit manager, Cass Budzynowski, and its credit
    investigator, Hope McGee.   During the relevant years, each of
    these individuals performed services in connection with ACC’s
    acquisition of installment contracts.    James Blasius managed
    ACC’s overall operation and handled personally all contracts with
    dealers.   Steven Balan supervised and oversaw ACC’s day-to-day
    management and its financial and general office management.      Cass
    - 6 -
    Budzynowski analyzed credit applications and supervised credit
    investigations.   Hope McGee analyzed credit reports and verified
    all information provided by credit applicants, e.g., by directly
    contacting employers, banks, and creditors.
    ACC pays each of its key management personnel a base salary.
    Each of these individuals is also entitled to receive an annual
    bonus at the sole discretion of ACC’s board of directors.    The
    bonuses are paid from a “bonus pool” established by ACC and in
    which ACC places funds in an amount up to 16.25 percent of its
    pretax net profits.   Except in the case of James Blasius, no
    restrictions exist as to the amount of compensation that ACC may
    pay to its officers or key employees.    James Blasius’ bonus is
    limited to 55 percent of the pool.
    Under the terms of each installment contract, an individual
    buys an automobile from a dealer at a set price to be paid (with
    interest) in monthly installments.     The average rate of interest
    charged to the buyers is approximately 22 percent.    The length of
    repayment ranges from 12 to 36 months.
    ACC and the dealers have an independent agreement under
    which the dealers sell some of the installment contracts (and the
    right to the corresponding payments of principal and interest) to
    ACC at a price equal to 65 percent of each contract’s principal
    amount (i.e., at a 35-percent discount).    As of April 30, 1993,
    ACC acquired the installment contracts from 13 dealers, 3 of
    - 7 -
    which sold to ACC 69.4 percent of the installment contracts which
    ACC acquired.    ACC is not obligated to acquire all of the
    installment contracts offered to it by the dealers but generally
    must decide on whether it will acquire a particular installment
    contract before the related automobile sale is finalized.      ACC
    rests its decision as to the acquisition of an installment
    contract on its analysis of the buyer’s credit worthiness.      That
    analysis generally includes ACC’s review of the buyer’s credit
    application, ACC’s obtaining of one or more credit reports on the
    buyer, ACC’s verifying of the buyer’s job status, salary, and
    residence, and ACC’s evaluation of various aspects of the buyer’s
    credit history such as payment history and financial stability.
    If ACC acquires an installment contract, the dealer generally
    assigns its rights under that contract to ACC as part of the
    automobile sale, and ACC pays the dealer the 65-percent amount
    upon ACC’s receipt of all of the documents relating to the
    installment contract.    The automobile buyer pays ACC all amounts
    due under the installment contract, and the automobile buyer
    collateralizes his or her obligation to make those payments with
    the purchased automobile.4    ACC may repossess and sell the
    automobile if the buyer defaults on the installment contract.
    ACC’s acquisition of installment contracts generally
    followed an established procedure.      First, ACC would contact
    4
    ACC services all of the installment contracts it acquires.
    - 8 -
    dealers and advise them that it was in the business of acquiring
    installment contracts on an ongoing basis.    Second, ACC would
    enter into the independent agreement with each dealer that
    decided to sell its installment contracts to ACC, and the dealer
    would provide ACC with its sellers license.    Third, the dealer,
    when faced with a prospective automobile buyer who did not
    qualify for traditional financing, would alert the buyer to ACC’s
    financing business.   Fourth, a buyer who wanted to finance the
    purchase with ACC would complete a detailed credit application
    that the dealer would transmit to ACC by facsimile.    Fifth, ACC
    would record the application in its daily log and perform its
    credit review process.   Sixth, to the extent that ACC decided
    favorably on a credit application, and the buyer accepted ACC’s
    financing arrangement,5 ACC would issue the dealer a check for
    the 65-percent amount on the next Friday, or, if ACC had not yet
    received the requisite documentation from the dealer, on the
    first Friday after it received that documentation.    One piece of
    documentation required by ACC was the fully executed installment
    contract that was printed on a form that bore ACC’s name, logo,
    address, and telephone number.    Upon receipt of this contract,
    ACC assigned the applicant an account number and entered all
    applicable information into its computerized collection system.
    5
    ACC’s approval of an application did not always result in
    its acquisition of the related installment contract. An
    applicant sometimes decided for one reason or another not to
    accept ACC’s financing arrangement.
    - 9 -
    ACC’s credit review process generally included six steps,
    all of which ACC could perform within 3 to 4 hours.   First, ACC
    would access electronically credit bureau reports on the
    applicant and assign points to certain items shown on the
    reports.   Second, ACC would measure the total points either
    against preestablished levels for approval or denial or against
    an arbitrary level of approval or denial that was ascertained
    intuitively.   Third, ACC would analyze through debt-to-income and
    loan-to-value ratios an applicant’s ability to pay the debt,
    taking into account his or her disposable income and income per
    dependent.   ACC would sometimes perform in connection with this
    step a budgetary analysis to suggest changes to the loan terms
    (e.g., by decreasing the monthly payment over a longer time
    frame) so as to meet preestablished target ratios.    Fourth, ACC
    would conditionally approve or deny an applicant on the basis of
    all of the information that it had as of yet accumulated.      Fifth,
    as to applications that received a conditional approval, ACC
    would perform an additional review as to the applicant by
    verifying (mainly by telephone) his or her employment, residency,
    and personal references, and by interviewing the applicant by
    telephone.   Sixth, as to the applicants who passed this
    additional level of review, ACC would communicate to the dealer
    ACC’s approval of the applicant.   In some instances, ACC would
    inform the dealer that it was unwilling to finance the purchase
    under the terms offered to it but would finance a lesser amount
    - 10 -
    of principal and/or would finance the purchase over a shorter
    repayment term.
    In 1993 and 1994, ACC paid installment contracts
    expenditures totaling $267,832 and $339,211, respectively.    These
    expenditures, which were attributable to ACC’s obtaining of
    credit reports and screening of credit histories, related
    primarily to the portion of ACC’s payroll and overhead expenses
    that was attributable to its credit analysis activities.6    None
    of these expenditures included any postacquisition or servicing
    expenses.   ACC ascertained the amount of these expenditures at
    the request of its independent auditors.   The parties agree that
    these expenditures are “related” to ACC’s credit analysis
    activities and that the breakdown of specific expenditures is as
    set forth below.   The parties dispute whether any or all of the
    expenditures is “directly related” to ACC’s credit analysis
    activities, as contended by respondent, or is “indirectly
    related” to those activities, as contended by petitioners.
    6
    We use the term “credit analysis activities” to refer to
    ACC’s credit review services and its funding services (i.e.,
    ACC’s issuance of the checks to dealers in consideration for the
    installment contracts).
    - 11 -
    Breakdown of Specific Expenditures1
    1993
    Salary                                     Percentage of Total Expenses Amount
    And          Benefits                      Related to ACC’s Credit        In
    Employee         Wages   FICA MESC/FUTA BC/BS Total Expense    Analysis Activities        Issue
    Steve Balan     $69,359 $4,504  $313    $4,062   $78,238               50                $39,119
    James Blasius    89,769 4,713    313     4,062    98,857               75                 74,143
    Cass Budzynowski 43,500 3,213    313     1,790    48,816              100                 48,816
    Hope McGee       16,248 1,216    313     3,692    21,469              100                 21,469
    Kelly            16,100 1,193    313     1,790    19,396              100                 19,396
    Stacey           10,280    767   313     2,086    13,446               75                 10,085
    245,256 15,606 1,878    17,482   280,222                                 213,028
    Overhead Items
    Printing                                               9,412           75                   7,059
    Telephone                                             12,454           75                   9,341
    Computer                                              19,598           95                  18,618
    Rent                                                  34,413           50                  17,207
    Utilities                                              5,162           50                   2,581
    81,039                               54,806
    2
    361,261                              267,832
    1994
    Salary,
    Wages, and                                    Percentage of Total Expenses Amount
    Estimated        Benefits                     Related to ACC’s Credit        In
    Employee         Bonus    FICA MESC/FUTA BC/BS Total Expense   Analysis Activities        Issue
    Steve Balan     $95,820 $4,886   $218    $4,932  $105,856              40                $42,342
    James Blasius   139,216 5,776     218     4,932   150,142              50                 75,071
    Cass Budzynowski 52,846 3,813     218     2,177    59,054             100                 59,054
    Hope McGee       11,508     842   218     4,932    17,500             100                 17,500
    Kelly            22,200 1,584     218     2,177    26,179             100                 26,179
    Sue              24,500 1,760     218     4,932    31,410             100                 31,410
    Kathy            16,921 1,256     218     4,932    23,327              75                 17,495
    Stacey            1,218      93    32       411     1,754              75                  1,316
    Kirsten           2,438     167    57       181     2,843             100                  2,843
    366,667 20,177 1,615     29,606   418,065                                273,210
    Overhead Items
    Printing                                               8,663           75                  6,497
    Telephone                                             15,133           60                  9,080
    Computer                                              25,919           95                 24,623
    Rent                                                  37,875           60                 22,725
    Utilities                                              5,126           60                  3,076
    92,716                              66,001
    510,781                             339,211
    1
    The record does not indicate the surname of each of
    the listed employees. Nor does the record indicate the
    job titles of the employees listed without a surname or
    describe their daily duties.
    2
    The parties agree than this column equals $267,832.
    Actually, it equals $267,834. Because the $2
    unexplained difference is immaterial to our analysis,
    we use the parties’ figure of $267,832.
    ACC deducted the installment contracts expenditures of
    $267,832 on its 1993 Federal income tax return, and it deducted
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    $288,911 of the $339,211 in installment contracts expenditures on
    its 1994 Federal income tax return.    ACC now claims that it was
    entitled to deduct for 1994 the remaining $50,300 of installment
    contracts expenditures ($339,211 - $288,911).   As to the
    respective years, ACC deducted officers’ compensation of $158,099
    and $217,036 and salaries/wages of $126,464 and $194,306.      The
    portion of the officers’ compensation, salaries/wages, and
    overhead which was deducted but not in issue is attributable to
    ACC’s servicing of the installment contracts.
    For financial accounting purposes, ACC separately listed the
    installment contracts as assets on its 1993 and 1994 balance
    sheets.   In addition, ACC initially deducted the installment
    contracts expenditures of $267,832 for 1993 but amended that
    year’s financial statements to amortize the expenditures over the
    expected life of the related installment contracts.    ACC’s
    independent auditors required the amendment and related
    amortization in order to comply with Statement of Financial
    Accounting Standards No. 91 (SFAS 91), Accounting for
    Nonrefundable Fees and Costs Associated with Originating or
    Acquiring Loans and Initial Direct Costs of Leases.7    ACC
    7
    The record does not indicate why ACC’s auditors believed
    that the amendment was required under SFAS 91. Whereas SFAS 91
    provides explicitly for the deferral of “direct loan origination
    costs”, it does not provide similarly as to the direct costs of
    acquiring loans. SFAS 91 provides as to the acquisition of loans
    that “15. The initial investment in a purchased loan or group of
    loans shall include the amount paid to the seller plus any fees
    (continued...)
    - 13 -
    amortized the installment contracts expenditures of $339,211 over
    the expected lives of the related installment contracts for 1994.
    ACC performed its credit review services as to approximately
    1,824 credit applications in 1993 and approximately 2,158 credit
    applications in 1994.   As to those applications, ACC acquired 693
    installment contracts in 1993 and 820 installment contracts in
    1994; in other words, ACC acquired in each year approximately 38
    percent of the installment contracts which were offered to it.
    The original terms of the 1993 installment contracts averaged
    23.89 months, and their actual duration averaged 17.5 months.
    The original terms of the 1994 installment contracts averaged 29
    months, and their actual duration averaged 19.5 months.   Of the
    693 installment contracts acquired in 1993, 182 had an actual
    duration of 12 months or less.   Of the 820 installment contracts
    acquired in 1994, 217 had an actual duration of 12 months or
    less.
    ACC issued a private placement memorandum (PPM) on April 30,
    1993, offering up to $2.4 million of its subordinated asset
    7
    (...continued)
    paid or less any fees received. * * * All other costs incurred
    in connection with acquiring purchased loans or committing to
    purchase loans shall be charged to expense as incurred.” We note
    in passing, however, that rules such as SFAS 91 which are
    compulsory for financial accounting purposes do not control the
    proper characterization of an item for Federal income tax
    purposes. See Thor Power Tool Co. v. Commissioner, 
    439 U.S. 522
    ,
    542-543 (1979); see also Old Colony R.R. Co. v. Commissioner, 
    284 U.S. 552
    , 562 (1932).
    - 14 -
    backed notes (Notes).   ACC intended through the offering to raise
    funds for its current operation, including the acquisition of
    installment contracts which would be (and were) pledged to secure
    ACC’s obligations under the Notes.      The Notes matured in 36
    months but could be redeemed by the noteholders at 12 or 24
    months.   The Notes bore interest at 12 percent during the first
    year, 13 percent during the second year, and 14 percent during
    the final year.   The Notes were purchased by approximately 50
    investors, and approximately five of these investors redeemed
    their Notes before maturity.
    East-West Capital Corporation (East-West) sold the Notes on
    ACC’s behalf and was paid a commission equal to 4 percent of the
    principal amount of the Notes sold, plus 1 percent of the
    principal outstanding at 12 months, plus 1 percent of the
    principal outstanding at 24 months.      Included in East-West’s
    commission was a 1 percent due diligence fee.
    ACC deducted $29,647, $38,239, and $33,783 of offering
    expenses, commissions, and professional fees, respectively, for
    1993.   ACC deducted $36,251, $74,361, and $110,432 of offering
    expenses, commissions, and professional fees, respectively, for
    1994.   The deductions for 1993 and 1994 included costs
    attributable to a second private placement offering that was
    planned in 1993 and abandoned in 1994.
    - 15 -
    Respondent audited ACC’s 1993 and 1994 taxable years.      As to
    1993, respondent disallowed $198,626 of installment contracts
    expenditures deducted by ACC, determining that these expenses
    were capital expenditures relating to assets having a life
    exceeding one year.8   Respondent also disallowed $55,027 and
    $66,652 of PPM expenditures deducted by ACC for 1993 and 1994,
    respectively, determining that these expenditures were capital
    expenditures which had to be amortized over the terms of the
    Notes.   The $55,027 included legal fees of $7,274 and a
    registration fee of $1,250 paid in 1993 for the private placement
    offering that ACC abandoned in 1994.    The $66,652 included legal
    fees of $21,792 paid in 1994 for the private placement offering
    that ACC abandoned in 1994.   The remaining adjustments as to the
    PPM expenditures consisted of legal fees and commissions paid in
    connection with the PPM.
    OPINION
    We must decide whether ACC may expense any of the disputed
    costs or must capitalize them as expenditures to be deducted in
    later years.   Income tax deductions are a matter of legislative
    grace, and petitioners bear the burden of proving ACC’s
    entitlement to the claimed deductions.   See Rule 142(a); INDOPCO,
    Inc. v. Commissioner, 
    503 U.S. 79
    , 84 (1992); Interstate Transit
    8
    Respondent made no adjustment to ACC’s deduction of
    installment contracts expenditures for 1994.
    - 16 -
    Lines v. Commissioner, 
    319 U.S. 590
    , 593 (1943).   For Federal
    income tax purposes, the principal difference between classifying
    a payment as a deductible expense or a capital expenditure
    concerns the timing of the taxpayer’s recovery of the cost.   As
    the Supreme Court has observed:
    The primary effect of characterizing a payment as
    either a business expense or a capital expenditure
    concerns the timing of the taxpayer’s cost recovery:
    While business expenses are currently deductible, a
    capital expenditure usually is amortized and
    depreciated over the life of the relevant asset, or,
    where no specific asset or useful life can be
    ascertained, is deducted upon dissolution of the
    enterprise. * * * Through provisions such as these,
    the Code endeavors to match expenses with the revenues
    of the taxable period to which they are properly
    attributable, thereby resulting in a more accurate
    calculation of net income for tax purposes. * * *
    [INDOPCO, Inc. v. Commissioner, supra at 83-84.]
    Our inquiry begins with the installment contracts
    expenditures.   Respondent determined and maintains that ACC must
    capitalize these expenditures to the extent stated herein.
    Respondent argues primarily that these expenditures are capital
    expenditures because they were related to ACC’s acquisition of
    separate and distinct assets; i.e., the installment contracts.
    Respondent argues secondly that ACC’s payment of the installment
    contracts expenditures provided it with significant future
    benefits in that it was able to acquire the installment contracts
    which produced income for it in later years.   Petitioners
    maintain that the installment contracts expenditures are
    currently deductible.   Petitioners agree that the expenditures
    - 17 -
    are related to the acquisition of the installment contracts but
    argue primarily that the expenditures are deductible as routine,
    recurring business expenses arising primarily from an employment
    relationship rather than from a capital transaction.    Petitioners
    argue secondly that the installment contracts expenditures are
    deductible because they are not described in either section
    263(a) or the related regulations.
    We agree with respondent in part and with petitioners in
    part.    We agree with respondent that ACC must capitalize the
    installment contracts expenditures to the extent of the salaries
    and benefits.9   We conclude that ACC’s payment of the salaries
    and benefits was directly related to its acquisition of the
    installment contracts.    We agree with petitioners that ACC may
    9
    We allow ACC to deduct under sec. 165(a) the portion of
    those expenditures that was attributable to the installment
    contracts which it never acquired. ACC may deduct those amounts
    for the respective years in which it ascertained that it would
    not acquire the related contracts. See Ellis Banking Corp. v.
    Commissioner, 
    688 F.2d 1376
    , 1382 (11th Cir. 1982), affg. in part
    and remanding in part T.C. Memo. 1981-123. See generally PNC
    Bancorp, Inc. v. Commissioner, 
    110 T.C. 349
    , 359, 362 (1998)
    (Commissioner allowed banks to deduct loan origination costs
    expended in connection with loans which were not successfully
    approved), revd. on other grounds 
    212 F.3d 822
     (3d Cir. 2000).
    Respondent argues that petitioners have failed to prove the
    portion of the expenditures attributable to the installment
    contracts which it never acquired. We disagree. We have found
    as a fact that ACC did not acquire approximately 62 percent of
    the installment contracts which were offered to it in each of the
    subject years. We hold that ACC may deduct for 1993 and 1994 62
    percent of the installment contracts expenditures attributable to
    installment contracts which in those years it decided not to
    acquire. See Cohan v. Commissioner, 
    39 F.2d 540
    , 543-544 (2d
    Cir. 1930).
    - 18 -
    currently deduct the installment contracts expenditures to the
    extent of the overhead expenses.   We conclude that ACC’s payment
    of the overhead expenses was not directly related to the
    anticipated acquisition of any of the installment contracts.    We
    also conclude that any future benefit that ACC received from the
    overhead expenses was incidental to its payment of them.   As
    discussed in detail below, we believe that the Supreme Court’s
    mandate as to capitalization requires that an expenditure be
    capitalized when it:   (1) Creates or enhances a separate and
    distinct asset, see Commissioner v. Lincoln Sav. & Loan
    Association, 
    403 U.S. 345
    , 354 (1971), (2) produces a significant
    future benefit, see INDOPCO, Inc. v. Commissioner, supra at 87-
    89, or (3) is incurred “in connection with” the acquisition of a
    capital asset,10 Commissioner v. Idaho Power Co., 
    418 U.S. 1
    , 13
    (1974); see Woodward v. Commissioner, 
    397 U.S. 572
    , 575-576
    (1970).   Given the Supreme Court’s pronouncement in Woodward v.
    Commissioner, supra at 577, that an acquisition-related
    10
    We, like the Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit in
    Ellis Banking Corp. v. Commissioner, supra at 1379, understand
    the term “capital asset” to be used for this purpose in its
    accounting sense to encompass any asset with a useful life
    exceeding 1 year. See also United States v. Akin, 
    248 F.2d 742
    ,
    744 (10th Cir. 1957) (“it may be said in general terms that an
    expenditure should be treated as one in the nature of a capital
    outlay if it brings about the acquisition of an asset having a
    period of useful life in excess of one year”. Such an
    understanding is directly consistent with the Secretary’s
    interpretation set forth in sec. 1.263(a)-2(a), Income Tax Regs.,
    of examples of property for which the costs of acquisition are
    capital expenditures.
    - 19 -
    expenditure is a capital expenditure when its origin “is in the
    process of acquisition itself”, we understand the phrase “in
    connection with” in the third situation to mean that the
    expenditure must be directly related to the acquisition.
    Our analysis begins with the relevant statutory text.    We
    apply that text in accordance with the related Treasury income
    tax regulations, the validity of which has not been challenged by
    either party, and the interpretation of that text and those
    regulations primarily by the United States Supreme Court.
    Section 162(a) provides that “There shall be allowed as a
    deduction all the ordinary and necessary expenses paid or
    incurred during the taxable year in carrying on any trade or
    business”.   The Treasury regulations specify that ordinary and
    necessary business expenses include “the ordinary and necessary
    expenditures directly connected with or pertaining to the
    taxpayer’s trade or business”, sec. 1.162-1(a), Income Tax Regs.,
    such as “a reasonable allowance for salaries or other
    compensation for personal services actually rendered”, sec.
    1.162-7(a), Income Tax Regs.   The Supreme Court has explained
    that a cash method taxpayer such as ACC may deduct an expenditure
    under section 162(a) if the expenditure is:   (1) An expense,
    (2) an ordinary expense, (3) a necessary expense, (4) paid during
    the taxable year, and (5) made to carry on a trade or business.
    See Commissioner v. Lincoln Sav. & Loan Association, supra at
    - 20 -
    352-353.   The Supreme Court has stated that a necessary expense
    is an expense that is appropriate or helpful to the development
    of the taxpayer’s business, see Commissioner v. Tellier, 
    383 U.S. 687
    , 689 (1966); Welch v. Helvering, 
    290 U.S. 111
    , 113-115
    (1933), and that an ordinary expense is an expense that is
    “normal, usual, or customary” in the type of business involved,
    Deputy v. du Pont, 
    308 U.S. 488
    , 495-496 (1940); see also Welch
    v. Helvering, supra at 113-115.   The Supreme Court has observed
    that the need for an expenditure to be ordinary serves, in part,
    to “clarify the distinction, often difficult, between those
    expenses that are currently deductible and those that are in the
    nature of capital expenditures, which, if deductible at all, must
    be amortized over the useful life of the asset.”    Commissioner v.
    Tellier, supra at 689-690.
    The fact that a payment falls within a literal reading of
    section 162(a) does not necessarily mean that the payment is
    deductible.   Sections 161 and 261, for example, except certain
    payments from the current deductibility provision of section
    162(a).    See INDOPCO, Inc. v. Commissioner, 503 U.S. at 84.
    Section 161 provides that “there shall be allowed as deductions
    the items specified in * * * [section 162(a)], subject to the
    exceptions provided in * * * sec. 261 and following, relating to
    items not deductible”.   Section 261 provides that “no deduction
    - 21 -
    shall in any case be allowed in respect of the items specified in
    this part”; i.e., part IX (Items Not Deductible).
    Section 263 is included in part IX.   Section 263(a)
    provides, in language that dates back to the Revenue Act of 1864,
    sec. 117, 13 Stat. 282, see United States v. Hill, 
    506 U.S. 546
    ,
    556 n.6 (1993) (“section 263(a)(1) has one of the longest
    lineages of any provision in the Internal Revenue Code.”), that
    “No deduction shall be allowed for--(1) Any amount paid out for
    new buildings or for permanent improvements or betterments made
    to increase the value of any property or estate.”    The Treasury
    regulations interpret this text by listing the following item as
    an example of a capital expenditure:   “The cost of acquisition,
    construction, or erection of buildings, machinery and equipment,
    furniture and fixtures, and similar property having a useful life
    substantially beyond the taxable year.”    Sec. 1.263(a)-2(a),
    Income Tax Regs.
    The determination of whether an expenditure is deductible
    under section 162(a) or must be capitalized under section 263(a)
    is not always a straightforward or mechanical process.      “[E]ach
    case ‘turns on its special facts’”, and “the cases sometimes
    appear difficult to harmonize.”   INDOPCO, Inc. v. Commissioner,
    supra at 86 (quoting Deputy v. du Pont, supra at 496).
    In accordance with the current law on capitalization, an
    expenditure may be deductible in one setting but capitalizable in
    - 22 -
    a different setting.   For example, in Commissioner v. Idaho Power
    Co., 418 U.S. at 13, the Supreme Court observed the following as
    to wages paid by a taxpayer in its trade or business:
    Of course, reasonable wages paid in the carrying on of
    a trade or business qualify as a deduction from gross
    income. * * * But when wages are paid in connection
    with the construction or acquisition of a capital
    asset, they must be capitalized and are then entitled
    to be amortized over the life of the capital asset so
    acquired. * * *
    Similarly, in Ellis Banking Corp. v. Commissioner, 
    688 F.2d 1376
    ,
    1379 (11th Cir. 1982), affg. in part and remanding in part T.C.
    Memo. 1981-123, the Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit
    observed as to business expenses in general:
    an expenditure that would ordinarily be a deductible
    expense must nonetheless be capitalized if it is
    incurred in connection with the acquisition of a
    capital asset.6
    6
    We do not use the term “capital asset” in
    the restricted sense of section 1221.
    Instead, we use the term in the accounting
    sense, to refer to any asset with a useful
    life extending beyond one year.
    Accord American Stores Co. & Subs. v. Commissioner, 
    114 T.C. 458
    (2000) (taxpayer required to capitalize legal fees incurred to
    defend against State antitrust suit arising out of, and connected
    to, prior stock acquisition); cf. Stevens v. Commissioner, 
    46 T.C. 492
    , 497 (1966) (otherwise deductible business expenses are
    capital expenditures when paid to acquire a capital asset), affd.
    
    388 F.2d 298
     (6th Cir. 1968); X-Pando Corp. v. Commissioner, 
    7 T.C. 48
    , 51-53 (1946) (salary, rent, advertising, and traveling
    - 23 -
    expenses which would ordinarily be deductible may be a capital
    expenditure if made to cultivate or develop business, the
    benefits of which will be realized in future years).
    The just-quoted observations of the Supreme Court and the
    Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit in the Idaho Power Co.
    and Ellis Banking Corp. cases, respectively, reflect a
    longstanding, firmly established body of law under which
    expenditures incurred “in connection with” the acquisition of a
    capital asset are considered capital expenditures includable in
    the acquired asset’s tax basis.11   Commissioner v. Idaho Power
    Co., supra at 13; see Woodward v. Commissioner, 397 U.S. at 575
    (“It has long been recognized, as a general matter, that costs
    incurred in the acquisition or disposition of a capital asset are
    to be treated as capital expenditures”); see also Johnsen v.
    Commissioner, 
    794 F.2d 1157
    , 1162 (6th Cir. 1986) (“costs
    incurred in connection with the acquisition or construction of a
    capital asset are capital expenditures”), revg. on other grounds
    
    83 T.C. 103
     (1984); Ellis Banking Corp. v. Commissioner, supra at
    11
    The Commissioner has had a similar longstanding view.
    See, e.g., Rev. Rul. 73-580, 1973-2 C.B. 86 (portion of
    compensation paid by corporation to its employees that is
    attributable to services performed in connection with corporate
    acquisitions is a capital expenditure); Rev. Rul. 69-331, 1969-1
    C.B. 87 (bonuses and commissions paid by gas distributor to
    secure long-term leases for hot water heaters are capital
    expenditures); Rev. Rul. 57-400, 1957-2 C.B. 520 (commissions
    paid by bank to brokers and other third parties for introduction
    of acceptable applicants for mortgage loans are capital
    expenditures).
    - 24 -
    1379 (“an expenditure that would ordinarily be a deductible
    expense must nonetheless be capitalized if it is incurred in
    connection with the acquisition of a capital asset”); cf. A.E.
    Staley Manufacturing Co. & Subs. v. Commissioner, 
    119 F.3d 482
    ,
    489 (7th Cir. 1997) (costs are capital expenditures if they are
    “associated with” facilitating a capital transaction), revg. on
    other grounds and remanding 
    105 T.C. 166
     (1995); Central Tex.
    Sav. & Loan Association v. United States, 
    731 F.2d 1181
    , 1184
    (5th Cir. 1984) (“expenditures incurred in the acquisition of a
    capital asset must generally be capitalized”); Commissioner v.
    Wiesler, 
    161 F.2d 997
    , 999 (6th Cir. 1947) (“well settled rule
    that expenditures incurred as an incident to the acquisition or
    sale of property are not ordinary and necessary business
    expenses, but are capital expenditures which must be added to the
    cost of the property”), affg. 
    6 T.C. 1148
     (1946).
    Capitalizable expenditures are not limited to the actual
    price that the buyer pays to the seller for the asset but
    include, for example, the payment of legal, brokerage,
    accounting, appraisal and other “ancillary” expenses related to
    the asset’s acquisition.     Woodward v. Commissioner, supra at
    576-577; see United States v. Hilton Hotels Corp., 
    397 U.S. 580
    (1970); see also Ellis Banking Corp. v. Commissioner, supra at
    1379.    Capitalizable expenditures also include compensation paid
    for services performed in connection with an asset’s acquisition,
    - 25 -
    including “a reasonable proportion of the wages and salaries of
    employees who spend some of their working hours laboring on the
    acquisition”.   Briarcliff Candy Corp. v. Commissioner, 
    475 F.2d 775
    , 781 (2d Cir. 1973), revg. on other grounds and remanding
    T.C. Memo. 1972-43; see Commissioner v. Idaho Power Co., supra at
    13; see also Cagle v. Commissioner, 
    539 F.2d 409
    , 416 (5th Cir.
    1976), affg. 
    63 T.C. 86
     (1974); Perlmutter v. Commissioner, 
    44 T.C. 382
    , 404 (1965), affd. 
    373 F.2d 45
     (10th Cir. 1967); cf.
    Strouth v. Commissioner, T.C. Memo. 1987-552 (costs of securing
    potential leases, including checking the lessee’s credit,
    reviewing the lease application, and drafting the lease documents
    are capital expenditures).
    When the Supreme Court was faced with the question as to the
    capitalization of litigation costs incurred appraising the stock
    of minority shareholders in connection with the majority
    shareholder’s acquisition of that stock, the Court held that the
    central inquiry was whether the expenditure originated in “the
    process of acquisition”.     Woodward v. Commissioner, supra at 577.
    In other words, the Court set its focus on the directness of the
    costs’ relationship to the acquisition and adopted a test under
    which costs originating in the process of acquiring a capital
    asset are considered capital expenditures.
    - 26 -
    We believe that the application of the “process of
    acquisition” test is appropriate here.12   Both this Court and the
    Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit applied the process of
    acquisition test in Honodel v. Commissioner, 
    76 T.C. 351
     (1981),
    affd. 
    722 F.2d 1462
     (9th Cir. 1984), to decide whether the
    taxpayer/investors could deduct two types of fees which they paid
    to an investment advisory and financial management company.   The
    first fee was a nonrefundable monthly retainer that the taxpayers
    paid for investment counsel and advice.    The amount of this fee
    depended on the investor’s income level and the investor’s
    financial planning, tax advice, and investment needs.   The second
    fee was a one-shot charge for services rendered in connection
    with each investment acquired.    The amount of this fee equaled a
    specific percentage of the investment’s cost.   We allowed the
    taxpayers to deduct the monthly fees but required them to
    capitalize the one-shot fees.    We focused on whether the services
    performed by the investment adviser were performed in the process
    of acquisition or for investment advice.    We concluded that the
    services relating to the monthly fee did not arise out of that
    process but that the services relating to the one-shot fee did.
    See id. at 363-368.   The Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit
    agreed.   See Honodel v. Commissioner, 
    722 F.2d 1462
     (9th Cir.
    12
    This approach is consistent with a test suggested by the
    amicus for FHLMC.
    - 27 -
    1984).    Thus, while the monthly fees were connected to an
    acquisition in the sense that they were required to be paid in
    order to consummate any acquisition, both this Court and the
    Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit acknowledged that the fees
    were insufficiently connected with an acquisition to require
    their capitalization.   The process of acquisition test,
    therefore, does not simply rest on whether an expenditure is
    somehow connected to an asset acquisition but focuses more
    appropriately on whether the expenditure was directly related to
    that acquisition.
    We apply the process of acquisition test to the facts at
    hand.    The salaries and benefits are a capital expenditure if the
    underlying services were performed in the acquisition process,
    or, in other words, were directly related to ACC’s anticipated
    acquisition of installment contracts.   See Woodward v.
    Commissioner, 
    397 U.S. 572
     (1970); Honodel v. Commissioner,
    supra.    We conclude that the underlying services were performed
    in that process; i.e., the services were directly related to
    ACC’s anticipated acquisition of installment contracts.    Each of
    the employees spent a significant portion of his or her time
    working on credit analysis activities, which was the first (and,
    in ACC’s business, an indispensable) step in ACC’s acquisition
    process, and, but for ACC’s anticipated acquisition of
    installment contracts, ACC would not have incurred the salaries
    - 28 -
    and benefits attributable to those activities.13   The credit
    review activities were so inexorably tied to and such an integral
    part of the acquisition process that the portion of the salaries
    and benefits attributable thereto must be considered as part of
    the cost of the installment contracts.   To be sure, the Supreme
    Court in Commissioner v. Idaho Power Co., 418 U.S. at 13, even
    considered the tools and materials used by the construction
    workers, in addition to the wages of the workers themselves, as
    part of the capital asset’s cost, as did the court in Ellis
    Banking Corp. v. Commissioner, 
    688 F.2d 1376
     (11th Cir. 1982),
    with respect to office supplies, filing fees, travel expenses,
    and accounting fees.   We hold that the salaries and benefits are
    capital expenditures to the extent that the parties have agreed
    that those costs are attributable to the credit analysis
    activities.14
    13
    As a matter of fact, ACC admitted as much in its PPM when
    it stated:
    In the event only a minimal amount of Notes are sold
    pursuant to this Offering, the Company [ACC] would have
    to downsize its operations and could, in fact, operate
    with its current portfolio of retail installment
    contracts with as few as three (3) individuals,
    including the President of the Company, James Blasius.
    14
    To the extent that the specific work performed by each
    individual as to the acquisition process is not contained in the
    record, petitioners bear the consequences of any deficiency in
    the record as they bear the burden of disproving respondent’s
    determination that the costs of the services and benefits at
    issue are capital expenditures.
    - 29 -
    As to the overhead expenses, we conclude and hold
    differently.   Those expenses are capital expenditures to the
    extent that they originated in ACC’s acquisition process, or, in
    other words, were directly related to ACC’s anticipated
    acquisition of installment contracts.     We are unable to find that
    such was the case.   None of these routine and recurring expenses
    originated in the process of ACC’s acquisition of installment
    contracts, nor, in fact, in any anticipated acquisition at all.
    ACC would have continued to incur most of these expenses in the
    ordinary course of its business had its business only been to
    service the installment contracts.     The items of rent and
    utilities, for example, were generally fixed charges which had no
    meaningful relation to the number of credit applications analyzed
    (or the number of installment contracts acquired) by ACC.      Nor
    did the printing expense have any such meaningful relation.      In
    fact, ACC’s printing costs were less in 1994 than in 1993, even
    though ACC analyzed 18.3 percent more credit applications (and
    acquired 18.3 percent more installment contracts) in 1994 than in
    1993.   Although ACC’s telephone and computer costs did increase
    in 1994 from the prior year, we are unable to discern from the
    record any direct relationship between that increase and the
    increase from the prior year in credit applications analyzed
    and/or installment contracts acquired so as to require
    capitalization of those costs.
    - 30 -
    We recognize that the Court in Perlmutter v. Commissioner,
    44 T.C. at 403-405, required the taxpayer there to capitalize a
    portion of his utilities as sufficiently connected to a capital
    transaction.   In that regard, the Perlmutter case is
    distinguishable from the case at hand in that the Perlmutter case
    preceded Woodward v. Commissioner, supra, and the related process
    of acquisition test.     We also distinguish the printing costs at
    hand from the printing costs in A.E. Staley Manufacturing Co. &
    Subs. v. Commissioner, 119 F.3d at 492-493, the latter of which
    we and the Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit considered as
    associated with a capital transaction.    The printing costs there,
    unlike those here, were required to be incurred by the taxpayer
    so as to facilitate communication with shareholders and others in
    connection with the transaction.    See A.E. Staley Manufacturing
    Co. & Subs. v. Commissioner, 105 T.C. at 180, 197.
    Respondent argues that ACC’s payment of the overhead
    expenses produced for it a significant future benefit requiring
    capitalization under INDOPCO, Inc. v. Commissioner, 
    503 U.S. 79
    (1992).   We disagree.   On the basis of our discussion above, we
    conclude that any future benefit that ACC realized from these
    expenses was incidental to its payment of them so as not to
    require capitalization on that theory.    See id. at 87-88.
    Petitioners argue that the salaries and benefits are ipso
    facto deductible because they are the routine, recurring expenses
    - 31 -
    of ACC’s business.15    Petitioners make three assertions in
    support of this argument.    Petitioners first assert that the
    salaries and benefits are fixed costs which flow from an
    employment agreement and are not dependent upon the occurrence of
    a capital transaction.    In this regard, petitioners contend, the
    amounts of the salaries and benefits paid by ACC are unaffected
    by the quantity, principal amount, or duration of the installment
    contracts, and those items would have been incurred even without
    the acquisition of an installment contract.    Petitioners assert
    secondly that the salaries and benefits are deductible under a
    literal reading of section 1.162-1(a), Income Tax Regs.      The
    relevant text of that section allows a taxpayer to deduct
    reasonable compensation that is “directly connected with or
    pertaining to the taxpayer’s trade or business”.    Petitioners
    assert thirdly that the salaries and benefits are deductible
    under the established jurisprudence of First Sec. Bank of Idaho,
    N.A. v. Commissioner, 
    592 F.2d 1050
     (9th Cir. 1979), affg. 
    63 T.C. 644
     (1975); First Natl. Bank of South Carolina v. United
    States, 
    558 F.2d 721
     (4th Cir. 1977); Colorado Springs Natl. Bank
    v. United States, 
    505 F.2d 1185
     (10th Cir. 1974); and Iowa-Des
    Moines Natl. Bank v. Commissioner, 
    68 T.C. 872
     (1977), affd. 592
    15
    The amicus for FNMA also advances this argument.
    - 32 -
    F.2d 433 (8th Cir. 1979) (collectively, credit card cases).16
    Petitioners assert that the credit card cases hold that recurring
    expenses are deductible under section 162(a) whenever the
    expenses are incurred in the ordinary course of business.
    Petitioners also point to INDOPCO, Inc. v. Commissioner, supra,
    and contend that the Supreme Court acknowledged there that an
    expense’s recurring nature is critical to qualifying it as
    deductible under section 162(a).
    We disagree with petitioners’ argument that section 162(a)
    allows ACC to deduct the expenses that recur in the ordinary
    course of its business merely by virtue of the fact that the
    expenses are everyday and/or routine in nature.   In order for a
    payment to be deductible under section 162(a), the underlying
    expense must not only be “normal, usual, or customary” in the
    type of business involved, Deputy v. du Pont, 308 U.S. at 495, it
    must be realized and exhausted in the year of payment, see
    Stevens v. Commissioner, 388 F.2d at 300.   Although an employer’s
    payment of salaries and benefits similar to the ones at issue
    will usually generate for the employer benefits that will be
    realized and exhausted in the year of payment, the same is not
    true when those items are directly related to the employer’s
    acquisition of a capital asset such as an installment contract.
    16
    Petitioners also rely on Bankers Dairy Credit Corp. v.
    Commissioner, 
    26 B.T.A. 886
     (1932).
    - 33 -
    The benefits which ACC will reap from the installment contracts;
    namely, interest and excess principal income,17 will not be
    realized and exhausted within the year of payment.   ACC will
    realize those benefits in each of the later years in which the
    interest and excess principal are received.   Given the Supreme
    Court’s observation in INDOPCO, Inc. v. Commissioner, supra at
    83-84, that our tax law endeavors to measure taxable income by
    allowing expenses to be deducted in the taxable year in which the
    related income is recognized, see also Newark Morning Ledger Co.
    v. United States, 
    507 U.S. 546
    , 565 (1993); Hertz Corp. v. United
    States, 
    364 U.S. 122
    , 126 (1960), it is only appropriate to defer
    ACC’s deduction of its payment of any expenses directly related
    to that interest or excess principal income to the years in which
    ACC recognizes the income.18   Only then will ACC’s taxable income
    be calculated more accurately for tax purposes than if ACC had
    deducted those expenses currently.
    We find instructive to our decision the case of Helvering v.
    Winmill, 
    305 U.S. 79
     (1938), revg. 
    93 F.2d 494
     (2d Cir. 1937),
    17
    We use the term “excess principal” to refer to the
    principal on the installment contracts that exceeded 65 percent
    of their face value.
    18
    The salaries and benefits were instrumental to the
    production of that income in that ACC would not have acquired any
    of the installment contracts without performing its credit
    analysis activities. In this regard, we disagree with the amicus
    representing FNMA that all of ACC’s salaries and benefits are
    indirect expenses to which sec. 263(a) does not apply in the
    first place.
    - 34 -
    revg. and remanding 
    35 B.T.A. 804
     (1937).    There, the taxpayer
    claimed that he could deduct as compensation brokerage
    commissions paid to acquire securities in the ordinary course of
    his business.   The Commissioner had disallowed the deduction,
    determining that the payments were capital expenditures.     The
    taxpayer argued that it could deduct the payments because, he
    asserted, they were an ordinary and necessary business expense.
    The taxpayer asserted that he was in the business of buying and
    selling securities.   A divided Board of Tax Appeals sustained the
    Commissioner’s disallowance.   See Winmill v. Commissioner, 
    35 B.T.A. 804
     (1937).    The Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit
    disagreed with the Board, holding that the payments were
    deductible if the taxpayer was in fact engaged in the business of
    buying and selling securities.   See Winmill v. Commissioner, 
    93 F.2d 494
     (2d Cir. 1937).   The Supreme Court held that the
    payments were capital expenditures.     The Supreme Court noted that
    the Treasury regulations (Regs. 77, art. 282 (1932)19) set forth
    a longstanding position that commissions paid in acquiring
    securities are considered part of the securities’ cost and
    stated:   “The fact-–if it be a fact-–that * * * [the taxpayer]
    was engaged in the business of buying and selling securities does
    19
    The substance of these regulations regarding commissions
    paid to acquire securities has been carried forward into sec.
    1.263(a)-2(e), Income Tax Regs.
    - 35 -
    not entitle him to take a deduction contrary to this provision.”
    Helvering v. Winmill, 305 U.S. at 84.
    Petitioners argue that Helvering v. Winmill, supra, is
    irrelevant.   Petitioners recognize that the taxpayer in the
    Winmill case, similar to petitioners here, relied on a provision
    in the regulations that provided specifically that compensation
    paid in the ordinary course of business qualified as a deductible
    expense.   Petitioners distinguish the Winmill case by noting that
    another provision in those regulations provided specifically that
    “commissions paid in purchasing securities are a part of the cost
    price of such securities.”   Regs. 77, art. 282 (1932).
    Petitioners conclude that the Supreme Court’s holding in the
    Winmill case rested solely on the presence of the second
    provision and assert that no similar provision exists here to
    preclude explicitly its deduction of the salaries and benefits.
    Petitioners also note that the instant facts are different than
    Winmill in that ACC is not a securities dealer, the installment
    contracts are not securities, and none of the installment
    contracts expenditures are commissions.
    We disagree with petitioners’ assertion that Helvering v.
    Winmill, supra, is irrelevant.   We, like the Supreme Court in the
    Winmill case, focus on a specific, longstanding position set
    forth in the Treasury regulations to conclude that the salaries
    and benefits must be capitalized even though, in a different
    - 36 -
    setting, those costs may have qualified for deduction under a
    more general regulatory provision.     Specifically, whereas section
    1.162-1(a), Treasury Income Tax Regs., provides generally that
    “the ordinary and necessary expenditures directly connected with
    or pertaining to the taxpayer’s trade or business” are deductible
    expenses, section 1.263(a)-2(a), Income Tax Regs., provides
    specifically that capitalized expenditures include “The cost of
    acquisition, construction, or erection of buildings, machinery
    and equipment, furniture and fixtures, and similar property
    having a useful life substantially beyond the taxable year.”      We
    disagree with petitioners when they assert that this latter
    provision does not preclude explicitly ACC’s deduction of the
    salaries and benefits.   The installment contracts, similar to the
    buildings, machinery and equipment, and furniture and fixtures
    listed specifically in section 1.263(a)-2(a), Income Tax Regs.,
    have anticipated useful lives extending substantially beyond the
    taxable year of the related expenditures.20    We also disagree
    20
    Petitioners argue that the installment contracts are not
    "similar" to the examples in the regulations and, hence,
    expenditures connected thereto need not be capitalized. We
    disagree. We understand the word “similar” to encompass any
    property that, like the examples, has a useful life extending
    substantially beyond the taxable year of the related expenditure.
    Petitioners’ narrow interpretation of the regulations fails to
    recognize that the Supreme Court has consistently taken a wider
    view as to capital expenditures. See, e.g., Commissioner v.
    Lincoln Sav. & Loan Association, 
    403 U.S. 345
     (1971)
    (contributions to depository reserve fund were capital
    expenditures); Helvering v. Winmill, 
    305 U.S. 79
     (1938) (taxpayer
    (continued...)
    - 37 -
    with petitioners when they draw factual distinctions between the
    two cases sufficient to warrant contrary results.   The facts that
    ACC is not a securities dealer, that the installment contracts
    are not securities, and that none of the installment contracts
    expenditures are commissions are, in our minds, merely
    distinctions without a difference.    Compare Woodward v.
    Commissioner, 397 U.S. at 575, 577-578, wherein the Court stated:
    The Court recognized [in Helvering v. Winmill, supra,]
    that brokers’ commissions are ‘part of the
    (acquisition) cost of the securities,’ Helvering v.
    Winmill, supra, 305 U.S. at 84, 59 S.Ct. at 47, and
    relied on the Treasury regulation, which had been
    approved by statutory re-enactment, to deny deductions
    for such commissions even to a taxpayer for whom they
    were a regular and recurring expense in his business of
    buying and selling securities.
    *    *    *    *      *    *    *
    in this case there can be no doubt that legal,
    accounting, and appraisal costs incurred by taxpayers
    in negotiating a purchase of the minority stock would
    have been capital expenditures. See
    Atzingen-Whitehouse Dairy, Inc. v. Commissioner, 
    36 T.C. 173
     (1961). Under whatever test might be applied,
    such expenses would have clearly been ‘part of the
    acquisition cost’ of the stock. Helvering v. Winmill,
    supra. * * *
    Accord Commissioner v. Wiesler, 161 F.2d at 999 (“the Winmill
    case * * * follow[s] the well settled rule that expenditures
    incurred as an incident to the acquisition * * * of property are
    not ordinary and necessary business expenses, but are capital
    20
    (...continued)
    required to capitalize the regular and recurring costs incurred
    in acquiring securities).
    - 38 -
    expenditures”); Ellis Banking Corp. v. Commissioner, T.C. Memo.
    1981-123 (“Nor would the fact that petitioner was engaged in the
    business of acquiring bank stock entitle it to deduct such
    expenditures if the bank stock was a capital asset and the
    expenditures were incurred in the acquisition thereof.     Helvering
    v. Winmill, supra.”).
    We also apply the case of Commissioner v. Idaho Power Co.,
    
    418 U.S. 1
     (1974), revg. 
    477 F.2d 688
     (9th Cir. 1973), revg. T.C.
    Memo. 1970-83.   There, the taxpayer was a public utility engaged
    in the production, transmission, and sale of electricity.
    Throughout its long existence, the taxpayer regularly and
    routinely constructed additional transmission and distribution
    facilities using its own equipment and hundreds of its own
    employees.   Respondent determined that the taxpayer had to
    capitalize the depreciation on its equipment to the extent used
    in the construction project.   The Supreme Court agreed.   The
    Court noted that a goal of Federal income tax accounting is to
    match income with the related expenses and observed that “‘It has
    long been recognized, as a general matter, that costs incurred in
    the acquisition * * * of a capital asset are to be treated as
    capital expenditures.’”   Id. at 12 (quoting Woodward v.
    Commissioner, supra at 575; ellipsis in original).   Further, the
    Court noted: “there can be little question that other
    construction-related expense items, such as tools, materials, and
    - 39 -
    wages paid construction workers, are to be treated as part of the
    cost of acquisition of a capital asset.”      Id. at 13.   The Court
    concluded that requiring the taxpayer to capitalize its
    depreciation would maintain tax parity between it and another
    taxpayer who retained an independent contractor to construct the
    improvements and additions for it.      In the latter case, the Court
    stated, the depreciation on the equipment used by the independent
    contractor would be part of the cost that the contractor charged
    on the project.    The Court believed it unfair to allow a taxpayer
    to deduct the cost of constructing its facility if it has
    sufficient resources to do its own construction work, while
    requiring another taxpayer without such resources to capitalize
    its cost including the depreciation charged by the contractor.21
    See id. at 14.    The Court expressed no opinion as to the fact
    that the taxpayer in the Idaho Power Co. case had been regularly
    and routinely improving its facilities throughout most of its
    long existence, nor that these improvements had for the most part
    been made by its employees.    See id.; see also the opinions of
    the lower courts at Idaho Power Co. v. Commissioner, 
    477 F.2d 688
    , 690 (9th Cir. 1973); Idaho Power Co. v. Commissioner, T.C.
    Memo. 1970-83.
    21
    The amicus for FHLMC would limit the Supreme Court’s tax
    parity rationale to cases of self-created assets. We read
    nothing that would so limit that rationale.
    - 40 -
    The Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit also applied
    the case of Commissioner v. Idaho Power Co., supra, in Ellis
    Banking Corp. v. Commissioner, 
    688 F.2d 1376
     (11th Cir. 1982), to
    require capitalization of certain acquisition-related
    expenditures.   There, the taxpayer was a bank holding company
    that, under State law, had to acquire the stock of other banks or
    organize new banks in order to expand its business into new
    geographic markets.   The taxpayer agreed with another bank
    (Parkway) and certain of Parkway’s shareholders to acquire all of
    Parkway’s stock in exchange for taxpayer stock.   The agreement
    was contingent on the satisfaction of certain events.   Prior to
    consummation of the acquisition, but in connection therewith, the
    taxpayer incurred various expenses conducting a due diligence
    examination of Parkway’s books.   These expenses were for office
    supplies, filing fees, travel expenses, and accounting fees.     The
    taxpayer deducted these expenses, and respondent disallowed the
    deduction.   Respondent determined that the expenses had to be
    capitalized.
    We sustained respondent’s disallowance.   We held that the
    expenses were capital expenditures because they were incurred in
    connection with the acquisition of a capital asset.   The Court of
    Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit agreed.   The taxpayer had argued
    that the expenses were "ordinary and necessary" because they were
    incurred in connection with its decision to acquire the stock and
    - 41 -
    in evaluating the market in which Parkway was located.   See id.
    at 1381.   The taxpayer noted that the expenses were incurred
    before it was bound to buy Parkway’s stock.   The Court of
    Appeals, in rejecting the taxpayer’s claim to current
    deductibility, stated:
    Ellis also devotes a portion of its brief to arguing
    that it is in the business of promoting banks, so that
    the expenditures made in that business are deductible.
    It is not enough to establish that expenditures are
    incurred in carrying on a trade or business to qualify
    for a deduction under section 162--all of the
    requirements set out above [namely, the five
    requirements for deductibility set forth in
    Commissioner v. Lincoln Sav. & Loan Association, 403
    U.S. at 352-353,] must be fulfilled. Indeed, if being
    in the business sufficed, Ellis would be able to deduct
    the purchase price of the Parkway stock. * * * [Id. at
    1381 n.10.]
    The Court of Appeals went on to say that
    the expenses of investigating a capital investment are
    properly allocable to that investment and must
    therefore be capitalized. That the decision to make
    the investment is not final at the time of the
    expenditure does not change the character of the
    investment; when a taxpayer abandons a project or fails
    to make an attempted investment, the preliminary
    expenditures that have been capitalized are then
    deductible as a loss under section 165. * * * As the
    First Circuit stated, ‘* * * expenditures made with the
    contemplation that they will result in the creation of
    a capital asset cannot be deducted as ordinary and
    necessary business expenses even though that
    expectation is subsequently frustrated or defeated.’
    Union Mutual, 570 F.2d at 392 (emphasis in original).
    Nor can the expenditures be deducted because the
    expectations might have been, but were not, frustrated.
    [Id. at 1382.]
    Our opinion as to the salaries and benefits is further
    supported by the cases of Godfrey v. Commissioner, 
    335 F.2d 82
    - 42 -
    (6th Cir. 1964), affg. T.C. Memo. 1963-1, and Stevens v.
    Commissioner, 
    388 F.2d 298
     (6th Cir. 1968).      Godfrey v.
    Commissioner, supra, concerned deductions that the taxpayer
    claimed as to a joint venture in two parcels of real estate known
    as the Goose Pond and Adams Packing properties.      Before taking
    title to the Goose Pond property, the taxpayer and his associates
    caused a use survey to be conducted on the property in order to
    ascertain its best commercial use.      They concluded from the
    survey that the upper part of the tract was best suited for an
    automobile dealership and that the lower portion could best be
    used for a shopping center.    They acquired the property and then
    discovered that it lacked the zoning classification necessary to
    use it in the manner indicated by the survey.      They retained
    attorneys to try to change the property’s classification.      Their
    attempt was unsuccessful.    The taxpayer deducted his
    proportionate share of the cost of the survey and the attorney’s
    fee.    The taxpayer also deducted travel and living expenses that
    he had paid in connection with acquiring both the Goose Pond and
    Adams Packing properties.
    We denied the deductions, holding that all of the
    expenditures were capital expenditures.      We observed that the use
    survey “represented their first step in the contemplated
    development of the property; and its benefits were obviously
    expected to extend beyond the year in which the survey was made.”
    - 43 -
    Godfrey v. Commissioner, T.C. Memo. 1963-1.   We observed that the
    attorney’s fee was part of the cost of the development of a
    capital asset, in that it represented an unsuccessful attempt to
    have the Goose Pond property rezoned for certain commercial use.
    We observed that the travel and living expenses generally related
    to the acquisition and development of the property.
    The Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit agreed with us
    that all of the expenditures were capital expenditures.   The
    court stated:
    The Tax Court found that the cost of the “use
    survey” was a capital expenditure. The court said: “It
    represented their first step in the contemplated
    development of the property; and its benefits were
    obviously expected to extend beyond the year in which
    the survey was made.” The test of an ordinary business
    expense is whether it is of a recurring nature and its
    benefit is generally exhausted within a year. An
    expenditure is of a capital nature “where it results in
    the taxpayer’s acquisition or retention of a capital
    asset, or in the improvement or development of a
    capital asset in such a way that the benefit of the
    expenditure is enjoyed over a comparatively lengthy
    period of business operation.” Louisiana Land &
    Exploration Co. v. Commissioner, 
    7 T.C. 507
    , aff’d, 
    161 F.2d 842
    , C.A. 5 * * *. The purpose of the use survey
    was to benefit the land in a permanent way so that the
    owners could derive income from it on the basis of its
    best use. We agree with the Tax Court that this was
    properly a capital expenditure.
    We are of the opinion that the same reasoning is
    applicable to the expenditure for attorney’s fee.
    Counsel for the * * * [taxpayer] concedes that if the
    effort had been successful the expenditure would not
    have been a deductible item. We think there can be no
    distinction. The purpose of the expenditure was to
    create a permanent benefit. The fact that it created
    neither a permanent nor exhaustible benefit does not
    - 44 -
    change its character.   * * *   [Godfrey v. Commissioner,
    335 F.2d at 85.22]
    In Stevens v. Commissioner, 
    46 T.C. 492
     (1966), the taxpayer
    and another individual (Woody) entered into various joint
    ventures each of which involved acquiring a race horse and
    sharing that horse’s winnings or any proceeds from its sale.
    Woody paid the purchase price of each horse, and the taxpayer
    paid each horse’s maintenance and training expenses.   We held
    that one-half of the otherwise deductible maintenance expenses
    were capital expenditures because they represented the taxpayer’s
    cost of acquiring a one-half interest in the horses.   We stated:
    We agree with respondent to the extent that at
    least some portion of these expenses, which would
    otherwise be deductible as ordinary and necessary
    business expenses, must be capitalized as petitioner’s
    acquisition costs in the particular factual
    circumstances here present. It is obvious that
    petitioner had some acquisition cost for his interests;
    these interests were not acquired for nothing.
    Although Woody paid the entire purchase price for each
    horse, he did not give petitioner a one-half interest
    in each without consideration. * * *
    *    *    *     *     *    *    *
    In effect, Woody assumed petitioner’s half of the
    purchase price and as consideration for this,
    petitioner assumed Woody’s half of the expense burden.
    * * * [Id. at 497.]
    22
    The court held that our findings as to the remaining
    expenses were not clearly erroneous. See Godfrey v.
    Commissioner, 
    335 F.2d 82
    , 86 (6th Cir. 1964), affg. T.C. Memo.
    1963-1.
    - 45 -
    In affirming our decision, the Court of Appeals for the Sixth
    Circuit held that the mere fact that the expenses were recurring
    and otherwise deductible business expenses was not enough to make
    the expenses deductible under section 162.   The court noted that
    “Section 162 was primarily intended to cover recurring
    expenditures where the benefit derived from the payment is
    realized and exhausted within the taxable year” and that the
    benefit from the expenses would not be exhausted within the year.
    Stevens v. Commissioner, 388 F.2d at 300; accord Perlmutter v.
    Commissioner, 44 T.C. at 403-405 (taxpayer required to capitalize
    portion of salaries, utilities, insurance, depreciation, legal
    and audit expenses, office expenses, and vehicle and truck
    expenses allocable to the construction of shopping center
    buildings).
    We also are mindful of Wells Fargo & Co. & Subs. v.
    Commissioner, 
    224 F.3d 874
     (8th Cir. 2000), affg. in part and
    revg. in part Norwest Corp. v. Commissioner, 
    112 T.C. 89
     (1999).
    There, a bank (Davenport) entered into a transaction with another
    bank (Norwest) that resulted in Norwest’s owning all the stock of
    an entity of which Davenport was a part.   Following the
    taxpayer’s concession that section 263(a) required that Davenport
    capitalize the costs which were directly related to the
    transaction, we were left to decide whether section 162(a)
    allowed Davenport to deduct investigatory costs of $87,570, due
    - 46 -
    diligence costs of $23,700, and officers’ salaries of $150,000
    which respondent had determined were attributable to the
    transaction.   Most ($83,450) of the investigatory costs related
    to services rendered by a law firm, before Davenport agreed to
    participate in the transaction.    The remaining ($4,120)
    investigatory costs related to services performed by the law firm
    in investigating whether, after the transaction, Norwest’s
    director and officer liability coverage would protect Davenport’s
    directors and officers for acts and omissions occurring before
    the transaction.    The due diligence costs related to services
    performed by the law firm in connection with Norwest’s due
    diligence review.   The disallowed officers’ salaries were
    attributable to services performed in the transaction.
    We held that section 162(a) did not let Davenport deduct any
    of the disputed costs.   Our holding followed our conclusion that
    all of the costs bore a sufficient nexus to a transaction
    producing a significant long-term benefit to fall within the
    rules of capitalization as set forth primarily in INDOPCO, Inc.
    v. Commissioner, 
    503 U.S. 79
     (1992).    Upon appeal, the
    Commissioner conceded that section 162(a) allowed Davenport to
    deduct the investigatory costs of $83,450 because they were
    attributable to the investigatory stage of the transaction.       That
    concession followed the Commissioner’s release of Rev. Rul. 99-
    23, 1999-1 C.B. 998, 1000, which holds that
    - 47 -
    Expenditures incurred in the course of a general
    search for, or investigation of, an active trade or
    business in order to determine whether to enter a new
    business and which new business to enter (other than
    costs incurred to acquire capital assets that are used
    in the search or investigation) qualify as
    investigatory costs that are eligible for amortization
    as start-up expenditures under § 195. However,
    expenditures incurred in the attempt to acquire a
    specific business do not qualify as start-up
    expenditures because they are acquisition costs under §
    263. The nature of the cost must be analyzed based on
    all the facts and circumstances of the transaction to
    determine whether it is an investigatory cost incurred
    to facilitate the whether and which decisions, or an
    acquisition cost incurred to facilitate consummation of
    an acquisition.[23]
    As to the remaining fees of $27,820 ($4,120 + $23,700), all
    of which were incurred after Davenport had made its final
    decision as to the acquisition, the Court of Appeals for the
    Eighth Circuit agreed with us that those amounts were capital
    expenditures.   The Court of Appeals disagreed with us, however,
    as to the officers’ salaries and held that those costs were
    currently deductible.   The court reasoned:
    23
    The Commissioner’s position as to the deductibility of
    investigatory expenditures incurred to acquire specific assets is
    set forth in Rev. Rul. 74-104, 1974-1 C.B. 70. There, the costs
    were “evaluation” expenditures which the taxpayer incurred in its
    business of acquiring residential property to renovate and sell
    to the public. Before acquiring the property, the taxpayer
    evaluated certain localities to ascertain the feasibility of
    selling the property in that locality. The taxpayer incurred a
    cost to secure an initial report from an independent agent and
    other costs to evaluate the report and the locality involved.
    The ruling holds that the costs are capital expenditures because
    they were incurred in connection with acquiring the residential
    property and provide benefits beyond the current taxable year
    through the sale of the renovated property.
    - 48 -
    the distinction between the case at hand, and the
    INDOPCO case lies in the relationship between the
    expense at issue and the long term benefit. In
    INDOPCO, the expenses in question were directly related
    to the transaction which produced the long term
    benefit. Accordingly, the expenses had to be
    capitalized. See INDOPCO, 
    503 U.S. 79
    , 
    112 S. Ct. 1039
    ,
    
    117 L. Ed. 2d 226
    . We conclude that if the expense is
    directly related to the capital transaction (and
    therefor, the long term benefit), then it should be
    capitalized. * * * See e.g. INDOPCO, 
    503 U.S. 79
    , 
    112 S. Ct. 1039
    , 
    117 L. Ed. 2d 226
     (1992). In this case,
    there is only an indirect relation between the salaries
    (which originate from the employment relationship) and
    the acquisition (which provides the long term benefit *
    * *).
    Similarly, the instant case is distinguishable
    from Acer Realty Co. v. Commissioner22, wherein this
    Court held that the salaries paid to two officers for
    "unusual, nonrecurrent services" had to be capitalized.
    
    132 F.2d 512
    , 513 (8th Cir. 1942). The taxpayer was a
    corporation whose only business was leasing real estate
    to a related corporation. Its officers were paid no
    salaries prior to their undertaking a large building
    program, at which point the two officers began acting
    as general contractors and "performed all the services
    necessary to the management of the construction of the
    buildings." Acer Realty, 132 F.2d at 514. Because the
    salaries were clearly and directly related to the
    capital project, this Court determined that most of the
    salaries paid were extraordinary or incremental
    expenses which had to be capitalized. Acer Realty Co.
    v. Commissioner, 
    132 F.2d 512
     (8th Cir. 1942).
    22
    Acer Realty is the only case in our
    Circuit, that we are aware of, which denies
    the taxpayer a deduction for salary expenses.
    The instant case is easily distinguishable from
    Acer Realty because Davenport’s officers had always
    received salaries, even before the acquisition was a
    possibility. There was no increase in their salaries
    attributable to the acquisition, and they would have
    been paid the salaries whether or not the acquisition
    took place. Therefore, we determine that the salary
    expenses in this case originated from the employment
    relationship between the taxpayer and its officers.
    - 49 -
    Indirectly, the payment of these salaries provided
    Davenport with a long term benefit. [Wells Fargo & Co.
    & Subs. v. Commissioner, 224 F.3d at 887-888.]
    Judge Bright wrote a concurring opinion in Wells Fargo & Co.
    & Subs. to highlight the fact that the record did not allow for a
    determination as to the portion of the salaries which were
    directly related to the transaction.   Judge Bright wrote:
    I write separately to emphasize that the record in this
    case is inadequate to show that the portion of the
    salaries in question, $150,000, was directly or
    substantially related to the acquisition. Moreover,
    the tax court’s findings of fact on this issue does not
    address the direct or indirect relationship of the work
    of the officers to the acquisition. That finding
    recited:
    During 1991, DBTC [Davenport] had 9
    executives and 73 other officers
    (collectively, the officers). John Figge,
    James Figge, Thomas Figge, and Richard Horst
    worked on various aspects of the transaction,
    as did other officers. None of the offices
    were hired specifically to render services on
    the transaction; all were hired to conduct
    DBTC’s day-to-day banking business. DBTC’s
    participation in the transaction had no
    effect on the salaries paid to its officers.
    Of the salaries paid to the officers in 1991,
    $150,000 was attributable to services
    performed in the transaction. DBTC deducted
    the salaries, including the $150,000, on its
    1991 Federal income tax return. Respondent
    disallowed the $150,000 deduction; i.e., the
    portion attributable to the transaction. * *
    *
    This finding does not address whether some
    officers at any particular period of time devoted
    substantial work to the acquisition or whether the
    officers during the period of time in question only
    incidentally worked on the acquisition while doing
    regular banking duties.
    - 50 -
    In order to determine whether an allocation of
    officers’ salaries to an acquisition-transaction such
    as made here qualifies as a deduction from income or
    should be capitalized, the taxing authorities should
    require the taxpayer to show officers’ time devoted to
    the acquisition as compared to time spent on regular
    work during a particular and relevant time period.
    The finding made by the tax court here does not justify
    capitalization of the officers’ salaries. [Id. at 889-
    890 (Bright, J., concurring).]
    We do not believe that our view as to the salaries and wages
    at hand is inconsistent with the Court of Appeals for the Eighth
    Circuit’s view as to the salaries at issue in Wells Fargo & Co. &
    Subs., supra.   The cases are factually distinguishable.   There,
    some of Davenport’s 82 officers spent a portion of their time
    performing services on a capital transaction; apparently, it was
    a relatively small portion, since the total salary attributable
    to work performed on the transaction by all of the officers was
    $150,000.   The services which they performed as to the capital
    transaction were extraordinary in the daily course of their
    employment, and the capital transaction was extraordinary to
    their employer’s business.   They would have been paid the same
    salaries regardless of whether the transaction was consummated.
    Here, by contrast, each of the disputed employees spent a
    significant portion of his or her time (in fact, in 8 of the 15
    cases, all of his or her time) working on capital asset
    acquisitions which occurred in the ordinary course of ACC’s
    - 51 -
    business.24   The employees were paid specifically to perform work
    as to the acquisitions, and the amount of the compensation that
    ACC paid to the employees hinged directly on the number of
    installment contracts that it acquired, e.g., at least some of
    the employees were entitled to receive a bonus in profitable
    years.25   Thus, whereas the officers in Wells Fargo & Co. &
    Subs., supra, performed the typical services of bank employees,
    services which could include work on a capital transaction as
    part of the bank’s business in general, ACC’s employees were
    hired and paid to perform services that necessarily would include
    work on capital asset acquisitions.
    The record here indicates specifically the portion of ACC’s
    total compensation that was directly related to ACC’s acquisition
    of the installment contracts, and, in accordance with Supreme
    Court precedent (as well as jurisprudence from the Second
    Circuit, Fifth Circuit, and this Court), we consider as capital
    expenditures that “proportion of the wages and salaries of
    employees who spend some of their working hours laboring on the
    acquisition”.   Briarcliff Candy Corp. v. Commissioner, 475 F.2d
    at 781; see Commissioner v. Idaho Power Co., 418 U.S. at 13; see
    24
    Of the total compensation paid to the disputed employees
    in 1993 and 1994, 76 percent ($213,028/$280,222) and 65.4 percent
    ($273,212/$418,065), respectively, was attributable to the
    acquisition of installment contracts.
    25
    We also bear in mind the statement in ACC’s PPM discussed
    supra note 13.
    - 52 -
    also Cagle v. Commissioner, 539 F.2d at 416; Perlmutter v.
    Commissioner, 44 T.C. at 404.
    Petitioners are mistaken when they assert that established
    jurisprudence provides that section 162(a) always allows a
    taxpayer to deduct the everyday, recurring costs of its business.
    The primary cases upon which petitioners rely, i.e., the credit
    card cases, did not merely rest on facts that the costs at issue
    there were everyday and recurring in nature.    All of those cases
    involved costs which were incurred in the businesses’ startup
    phase and which did not produce any separate or distinct asset.
    In Colorado Springs Natl. Bank v. United States, 505 F.2d at
    1192, for example, the Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit
    noted that "The start-up expenditures here challenged did not
    create a property interest.    They produced nothing corporeal or
    salable."   Similarly, in First Natl. Bank of South Carolina v.
    United States, 558 F.2d at 723, the Court of Appeals for the
    Fourth Circuit noted that “Membership in ASBA is not a separate
    and distinct additional asset created or enhanced by the payments
    in question.”    Likewise, in Iowa-Des Moines Natl. Bank v.
    Commissioner, 68 T.C. at 879, we noted that the costs "did not
    create or enhance a separate and distinct asset or property
    interest."26    Cf. Central Tex. Sav. & Loan Association v. United
    26
    In First Security Bank of Idaho, N.A. v. Commissioner,
    
    592 F.2d 1050
     (9th Cir. 1979), affg. 
    63 T.C. 644
     (1975), the
    (continued...)
    - 53 -
    States, 731 F.2d at 1184-1185 (court distinguished the credit
    card cases by virtue of the fact that the expense of the taxpayer
    before it created a separate and distinct asset).   Contrary to
    petitioners’ assertion (and, as discussed infra, the view of the
    Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit), we do not read any of
    the credit card cases to hold that everyday, recurring expenses
    are ipso facto deductible under section 162(a).   In fact, as this
    Court observed in Iowa-Des Moines Natl. Bank v. Commissioner, 68
    T.C. at 879, costs are entitled to deduction when they are
    “related to the active conduct of an existing business and * * *
    [do] not create or enhance a separate and distinct asset or
    property interest.”   Nor do we understand the Supreme Court in
    INDOPCO, Inc. v. Commissioner, 
    503 U.S. 79
     (1992), to have
    espoused the sweeping pronouncement proffered by petitioners as
    to this issue.27
    Petitioners also rely on PNC Bancorp, Inc., v. Commissioner,
    
    212 F.3d 822
     (3d Cir. 2000), revg. 
    110 T.C. 349
     (1998).   When
    this case was tried, the Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit
    had not yet released its opinion in that case, and petitioners
    26
    (...continued)
    Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit adopted as the law of that
    circuit the decision of the Tenth Circuit in Colorado Springs
    Natl. Bank v. United States, 
    505 F.2d 1185
     (10th Cir. 1974).
    27
    Nor do we read Bankers Dairy Credit Corp. v.
    Commissioner, 
    26 B.T.A. 886
     (1932), to hold that salaries and
    benefits are ipso facto deductible when they are recurring costs.
    - 54 -
    took the view that our opinion there was inapplicable to this
    case because, they claimed, the cases were factually
    distinguishable.   We held in PNC Bancorp, Inc., v. Commissioner,
    supra, that loan origination costs were capital expenditures.
    The Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit disagreed, holding
    that the costs were deductible expenses.    Petitioners now assert
    that PNC Bancorp, Inc. is relevant to our inquiry.
    We do not believe that PNC Bancorp, Inc. v. Commissioner,
    supra, is so factually distinguishable from the instant case to
    support contrary results.    Although the cases are obviously
    distinguishable by virtue of the fact that PNC (as defined below)
    was a loan originator and ACC is a loan acquirer, we do not
    believe that this bare distinction is meaningful enough to
    support contrary results in the cases, especially given the
    Supreme Court’s statements in Commissioner v. Idaho Power Co.,
    supra at 12-13, to the effect that the creation of an asset is
    subject to the same set of capitalization rules as the
    acquisition of an asset.    Given the additional fact that the
    Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit disagreed with our view as
    to the rules of capitalization applicable to the loan origination
    costs in PNC Bancorp, Inc., we believe it appropriate to
    reconsider our opinion there in light of the contrary view set
    forth by the Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit in reversing
    our decision.   We have carefully done so, giving due regard to
    - 55 -
    the contrary view.   For the reasons set forth below, we continue
    to adhere to our view on the rules of capitalization as expressed
    in PNC Bancorp, Inc., respectfully disagreeing with the contrary
    view expressed by the Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit.
    PNC was the successor in interest to two banks
    (collectively, PNC) which had deducted expenditures paid to
    market, research, and originate loans to PNC’s customers.   These
    expenditures included:   (1) Amounts paid to record security
    interests, (2) amounts paid to third parties for property
    reports, credit reports, and appraisals, and (3) an allocable
    portion of salaries and benefits paid to employees for evaluating
    a borrower’s financial condition, evaluating guaranties,
    collateral, and other security arrangements, negotiating loan
    terms, preparing and processing loan documents, and closing loan
    transactions.   PNC capitalized and amortized these costs for
    financial accounting purposes but deducted them for Federal
    income tax purposes.   PNC argued that the costs were deductible
    for tax purposes because they (1) were recurring expenses in the
    banking business, (2) were integral to PNC’s daily operation, and
    (3) provided PNC with only short-term benefits.
    We found that PNC incurred the costs to create separate and
    distinct assets, i.e., the loans, and that the costs produced for
    PNC long-term benefits in the form of the interest to be received
    in later years.   The Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit
    - 56 -
    disagreed with both of these findings.    The Court of Appeals
    focused primarily on the everyday meaning of the word “ordinary”
    and, without any reference to Helvering v. Winmill, 
    305 U.S. 79
    (1938), and with only a passing reference to Commissioner v.
    Idaho Power Co., 
    418 U.S. 1
     (1974), which the Court of Appeals
    cited for the proposition that capitalization prevents the
    distortion of income in the case of depreciable property,
    concluded that the loan origination costs were ordinary business
    expenses for purposes of section 162(a) because the costs were
    normal and routine to the business of a bank.    See PNC Bancorp,
    Inc., v. Commissioner, 212 F.3d at 828-829, 834-835.     The court
    saw no meaningful distinction between PNC’s loan origination
    costs and the costs incurred as "ordinary expenses" by banks in
    general.   The court stated that PNC’s deduction of the loan
    origination costs would not distort its income because it
    incurred those costs regularly.    See id. at 834-835.
    The Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit also stated that
    PNC’s costs did not create any separate and distinct asset within
    the meaning of Commissioner v. Lincoln Sav. & Loan Association,
    
    403 U.S. 345
     (1971).    Unlike the assets in Lincoln Sav. & Loan
    Association, which were not used by the taxpayer in its everyday
    business, PNC used its loans as part of its everyday business.
    The Court of Appeals distinguished the respective assets in the
    cases by this fact.    The Court of Appeals also distinguished
    - 57 -
    PNC’s costs from the payments in Lincoln Sav. & Loan Association
    by noting that the payments in Lincoln Sav. & Loan Association
    had formed the corpus of the asset, whereas PNC’s costs were not
    included in the principal of the loans.   The Court of Appeals
    analogized PNC’s costs to the expenditures at issue in the credit
    card cases, concluding that the costs were deductible under that
    line of cases.   PNC Bancorp, Inc., v. Commissioner, 212 F.3d at
    830-831.
    We do not believe that the “normal and routine” nature of
    the expenses in question dictates their deductibility.   As
    discussed above, payments made with a sufficiently direct
    connection to the acquisition, creation, or enhancement of a
    capital asset must be capitalized even when those payments are
    made in the course of the payee’s regular business operations.
    See, e.g., Woodward v. Commissioner, 397 U.S. at 575, 577-578;
    Helvering v. Winmill, supra.   Nor do we believe that any of the
    long line of cases addressing this acquisition-related
    capitalization requirement supports a conclusion that a payment
    is a capital expenditure only if it creates, enhances, or becomes
    part of an asset that is unrelated to the taxpayer’s daily
    business.   An expense that recurs in a taxpayer’s business is a
    capital expenditure when it is incurred in direct connection with
    the acquisition, creation, or enhancement of a separate and
    distinct asset, or provides the taxpayer with a significant
    - 58 -
    future benefit.   See, e.g., INDOPCO, Inc. v. Commissioner, 
    503 U.S. 79
     (1992); Commissioner v. Idaho Power Co., supra at 13;
    Woodward v. Commissioner, supra; Helvering v. Winmill, supra; see
    also Ellis Banking Corp. v. Commissioner, T.C. Memo. 1981-123
    (citing Woodward v. Commissioner, supra) (fact that a taxpayer
    "incurs expenditures * * * on a recurring basis does not ensure
    their characterization as ‘ordinary’ if they are incurred in the
    acquisition of a capital asset").   The mere fact that an expense
    may have been deductible in the credit card cases (or any other
    case for that matter) does not necessarily mean that the same
    type of expense is ipso facto deductible in another setting such
    as the one found in PNC Bancorp, Inc., v. Commissioner, 
    212 F.3d 822
     (3d Cir. 2000).   See, e.g., Commissioner v. Idaho Power Co.,
    supra at 13.
    We also do not believe that the fact that PNC’s loan
    origination costs were recurring in nature means that PNC’s
    current deduction of them would allow for an appropriate matching
    of income and expense.   See PNC Bancorp, Inc., v. Commissioner,
    supra at 834-835.   The Supreme Court stated explicitly in
    INDOPCO, Inc. v. Commissioner, supra at 84, that our Federal
    income tax system endeavors to match expenses with the related
    revenue in the taxable period for which the income is recognized.
    The Court stated in Commissioner v. Idaho Power Co., supra at 16,
    that “The purpose of section 263 is to reflect the basic
    - 59 -
    principle that a capital expenditure may not be deducted from
    current income.   It serves to prevent a taxpayer from utilizing
    currently a deduction properly attributable, through
    amortization, to later tax years when the capital asset becomes
    income producing.”   The thrust of these statements, in our minds,
    is that an expenditure must be deducted in accordance with its
    own individual identity, regardless of the possible recurrence in
    the taxpayer’s business of that type of expense.   A taxpayer’s
    income will be distorted if the taxpayer currently deducts a
    recurring expense that should be capitalized and the amount of
    that expense fluctuates meaningfully between taxable years.    For
    example, when the amount of such an expenditure increases
    significantly from one year to the next, the deduction of the
    expenditure may result in the taxpayer’s income being understated
    in the first year and overstated in the second, and the profits
    of the business may appear to be sinking, when in fact it is
    enjoying great success, or rising, when in fact it may be
    seriously diminished.   See Electric & Neon, Inc. v. Commissioner,
    
    56 T.C. 1324
    , 1332-1333 (1971), affd. without published opinion
    
    496 F.2d 876
     (5th Cir. 1974).    Such an inaccurate reporting of
    this fluctuation thwarts, rather than fosters, “a major objective
    of efficient tax policy.”   Cabintaxi Corp. v. Commissioner, 
    63 F.3d 614
    , 619 (7th Cir. 1995), affg. in part, revg. in part, and
    remanding on another issue T.C. Memo. 1994-316.
    - 60 -
    Nor do we read anything in section 263 or the related
    regulations that hinges section 263(a)’s applicability to an
    expenditure on a finding that an asset acquired or created by the
    expenditure was used outside of the taxpayer’s daily business.
    In fact, if such was the case, the costs incurred to acquire
    manufacturing equipment would arguably be deductible because that
    equipment is indispensable to the daily operation of the
    manufacturer’s business.     Moreover, in the case of an appraisal,
    the costs of which are clearly capital expenditures when incurred
    in connection with the purchase of property, the appraisal
    neither adds value to the appraised property nor has a long-term
    life.     We also note our disagreement with the concept that a cost
    is a capital expenditure only if it becomes part of an asset.       To
    be sure, the depreciation of the equipment used to construct the
    facilities in Commissioner v. Idaho Power Co., 
    418 U.S. 1
     (1974),
    did not become an actual part of those facilities.
    Nor do we find persuasive PNC’s argument to the Court of
    Appeals for the Third Circuit that our application of the
    “separate and distinct asset test” of Commissioner v. Lincoln
    Sav. & Loan Association, 403 U.S. at 354, was too expansive in
    that it would require capitalization of costs incurred “in
    connection with” or “with respect to” the acquisition of an
    asset.     PNC Bancorp, Inc. v. Commissioner, 212 F.3d at 830.     Such
    an argument conflicts directly not only with the Supreme Court’s
    - 61 -
    reasoning in Commissioner v. Idaho Power Co., supra at 12-14, and
    Woodward v. Commissioner, 397 U.S. at 575-576, but with the
    reasoning of various Courts of Appeals that have required
    capitalization of amounts incurred “in connection with” the
    acquisition of an asset.   See, e.g., Johnsen v. Commissioner, 794
    F.2d at 1162; Central Tex. Sav. & Loan Association v. United
    States, 731 F.2d at 1184; Ellis Banking Corp. v. Commissioner,
    688 F.2d at 1379.
    Nor do we believe that the fact an expenditure is somehow
    connected to the “needs of current income production” is enough
    to qualify that expenditure as a current deduction.   PNC Bancorp,
    Inc. v. Commissioner, 212 F.3d at 829, 833-834 (citing National
    Starch & Chem. Corp. v. Commissioner, 
    918 F.2d 426
     (3d Cir.
    1990), affd. sub nom. INDOPCO, Inc. v. Commissioner, 
    503 U.S. 79
    (1992).   In our minds, an expenditure that produces both a
    current and long-term benefit is neither 100 percent deductible
    nor 100 percent capitalizable.   Instead, regardless of whether
    the expenditure’s primary or predominant purpose is to benefit
    significantly the business’ current operation, on the one hand,
    or its long-term operation, on the other hand, the expenditure is
    a capital expenditure to the extent that it produces a
    significant long-term benefit and deductible to the remaining
    extent.   See Woodward v. Commissioner, 397 U.S. at 577-579;
    Commissioner v. Idaho Power Co., supra; Great N. Ry. v.
    - 62 -
    Commissioner, 
    40 F.2d 372
     (8th Cir. 1930), affg. on other grounds
    
    8 B.T.A. 225
     (1927); Southern Natural Gas Co. v. United States,
    
    188 Ct. Cl. 302
    , 
    412 F.2d 1222
    , 1264-69 (1969).28
    Having rejected petitioners’ first argument as to the
    salaries and benefits, we now turn to petitioners’ second
    argument that the salaries and benefits are outside the reach of
    section 263 because, they contend, those items are not described
    in that section.    Petitioners make three assertions in support of
    this argument.    First, they assert that section 263(a) applies
    only when an expenditure creates or adds value to a separate and
    distinct capital asset29 and that ACC’s payment of the salaries
    and benefits neither created nor added value to a capital asset.
    According to petitioners, an expenditure is subject to section
    263(a) only if it (1) is incurred to increase the value of
    28
    In Commissioner v. Idaho Power Co., 
    418 U.S. 1
     (1974),
    the Supreme Court held that the taxpayer must capitalize the
    portion of depreciation on transportation equipment allocable to
    part-time use in constructing improvements and other capital
    facilities for the taxpayer. In Great N. Ry. v. Commissioner, 
    40 F.2d 372
     (8th Cir. 1930), affg. on other grounds 
    8 B.T.A. 225
    (1927), the Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit held that a
    railway had to capitalize the cost of operating its regular
    trains to the extent it was attributable to the transportation of
    the railway’s workmen and materials to construction sites. In
    Southern Natural Gas Co. v. United States, 
    188 Ct. Cl. 302
    , 
    412 F.2d 1222
    , 1264-69 (1969), the Court of Claims held that
    depreciation on automotive equipment used primarily for operating
    and maintaining a pipeline system, but occasionally used in
    construction operations, had to be capitalized to the extent it
    was attributable to the construction.
    29
    The amici for FNMA also advance this argument.
    - 63 -
    property and (2) concerns the permanent improvement or betterment
    of that property.   Petitioners also contend that the installment
    contracts are ordinary (and not capital) assets in the hands of
    ACC.   Second, they assert that the salaries and benefits are
    expansion costs as to an existing business which, they contend,
    are deductible under a line of cases including PNC Bancorp, Inc.,
    v. Commissioner, 
    212 F.3d 822
     (3d Cir. 2000); Briarcliff Candy
    Corp. v. Commissioner, 475 F.2d at 781; Bankers Dairy Credit
    Corp. v. Commissioner, 
    26 B.T.A. 886
     (1932); and the credit card
    cases.   Petitioners also point to the following excerpt from the
    legislative history under section 195:
    In the case of an existing business, eligible startup
    expenditures do not include deductible ordinary and
    necessary business expenses paid or incurred in
    connection with an expansion of the business. As under
    present law, these expenses will continue to be
    currently deductible. [H. Rept. 96-1278, at 11 (1980),
    1980-2 C.B. 709, 712.]
    Third, they assert that the salaries and benefits did not
    generate a future benefit to ACC.   They contend that the salaries
    and benefits are not directly related to the acquisition of any
    specific installment contract.   They contend that the salaries
    and benefits were predecisional expenses which generated
    predominately short-term benefit.   They contend that the salaries
    and benefits did not themselves generate future income but only
    allowed ACC to decide whether it would acquire an installment
    contract.
    - 64 -
    We reject petitioners’ second argument.   As to their first
    assertion, we disagree with them that acquisition costs are
    capitalizable under section 263(a) only if they create or add
    value to a capital asset.30   In Dustin v. Commissioner, 
    467 F.2d 47
    , 49-50 (9th Cir. 1972), affg. 
    53 T.C. 491
     (1969), the taxpayer
    was a shareholder of an S corporation (Capitol) that agreed to
    acquire the stock of a company that owned and operated radio
    station KGMS.   In 1961, Capitol incurred $12,460 of legal,
    engineering, and accounting fees in connection with the transfer
    to Capitol of control of station KGMS’ radio-broadcasting
    license.   The taxpayer deducted his proportionate share of these
    expenses, and the Commissioner disallowed the deduction asserting
    that the expenses were capital expenditures.   The taxpayer argued
    in this Court that he could deduct $10,960 of the expenses
    because they were attributable to a hearing held by the Federal
    Communications Commission on this matter and which did not add
    any value to the acquired stock.   We disagreed with the taxpayer
    that any of these amounts were currently deductible.   On appeal,
    so did the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.   According to
    30
    As mentioned above, we understand the term “capital
    asset” to be used in its accounting sense and not in accordance
    with its meaning under sec. 1221. We add to our prior discussion
    that the term as applied to capitalization issues does not arise
    from the Code but is a byproduct of judicial interpretation. On
    the basis of our understanding of the meaning of the term, we
    reject petitioners’ contention that costs related to an
    “ordinary” asset under sec. 1221 can never be a capital
    expenditure.
    - 65 -
    that court: “The expenditures connected with the acquisition of
    the broadcast license were no less capital in character because
    they did not themselves contribute additional and specific
    financial value to the license being sought.      The important fact
    is that the expenditures were made for the purpose of acquiring a
    capital asset.”      Dustin v. Commissioner, 467 F.2d at 50; accord
    King Amusement Co. v. Commissioner, 
    44 F.2d 709
     (6th Cir. 1930)
    (fees paid to guarantors of rent under lease were capital
    expenditures notwithstanding the fact that the fees added no
    value to the lease or to the property leased thereunder), affg.
    
    15 B.T.A. 566
     (1929).
    In making this assertion, petitioners focus solely on the
    latter part of the text in section 263(a)(1); to wit, the phrase
    “made to increase the value of any property”.      We do not do
    likewise.      A proper reading of that section in full reveals that
    the phrase relates to “permanent improvements or betterments” and
    not to “new buildings”.31     Cf. Dustin v. Commissioner, 53 T.C. at
    505.    Here, we are dealing with salaries and benefits paid to
    acquire capital assets (i.e., the installment contracts) and not
    with expenditures made to improve or better property already
    owned.      We also bear in mind that the test for capitalization
    31
    Under the Treasury Department’s longstanding
    interpretation of sec. 263(a) as set forth in sec. 1.263(a)-2(a),
    Income Tax Regs., the cost of acquiring a long-term asset is an
    example of a capital expenditure.
    - 66 -
    does not hinge on the amount of value added to property but looks
    at the nature of the expense itself.      See Dominion Resources Inc.
    v. United States, 
    219 F.3d 359
    , 371 (4th Cir. 2000).      When the
    nature of an expenditure bears a direct relation to the
    acquisition of a capital asset, such as is the case here, the
    expenditure must be capitalized.
    The amicus for FNMA expands on petitioners’ first assertion
    by reference to section 1.263(a)-1(b), Income Tax Regs.        That
    section provides:    “In general, the amounts referred to in
    paragraph (a) of this section include amounts paid or incurred
    (1) to add to the value, or substantially prolong the useful
    life, of property owned by the taxpayer * * * or (2) to adapt
    property to a new or different use.”      The amicus also references
    the following passage from this Court’s Memorandum Opinion in
    Mayer v. Commissioner, T.C. Memo. 1994-209:      “It appears from the
    record that these transaction fees consisted in large part of
    general overhead rather than costs specifically allocable to
    individual purchases and sales.    These expenses are not
    capitalizable under section 263.”32      The amicus for FNMA
    concludes that the salaries and benefits are indirect costs
    outside the realm of section 263(a).
    32
    This passage is likewise referenced by the amicus for
    FHLMC.
    - 67 -
    We disagree with the additional arguments set forth by the
    amicus for FNMA as to petitioners’ first assertion.   The rule of
    section 1.263(a)-1(b), Income Tax Regs., upon which the amicus
    relies is merely a general rule that is not intended to contain
    the sole parameters of capitalization under section 263(a).      Nor
    do the amici rely correctly on our Memorandum Opinion in Mayer v.
    Commissioner, supra.   There, the taxpayer was an individual who
    argued that he could capitalize his investment-related expenses.
    We held he could not because he failed to meet his burden of
    proof.
    Nor are we persuaded by petitioners’ second assertion that a
    body of law treats the salaries and benefits as deductible
    expansion costs.   As to the body of cases relied upon by
    petitioners, we have discussed at length our disagreement with
    their reading of these cases and adhere to our belief that none
    of the cases supports the result that they desire.    Nor does the
    record at hand persuade us that any of the salaries and benefits
    were incurred in expansion of ACC’s business.33   Even if they
    could be construed to be expansion costs, which as just mentioned
    we do not find that they are, petitioners would still not
    prevail.   Simply because a cost may qualify as an expansion cost
    33
    In fact, petitioners’ assertion that the costs were
    related to an expansion of ACC’s business is inconsistent with
    their primary argument that the expenditures were incurred
    routinely in ACC’s everyday business.
    - 68 -
    does not make it a deductible expense.   See, e.g., FMR Corp. &
    Subs. v. Commissioner, 
    110 T.C. 402
    , 429 (1998) (section 195 does
    not require “that every expenditure incurred in any business
    expansion is to be currently deductible”.34   Such is especially
    true here where the salaries and benefits were incurred in
    connection with the acquisition of a capital asset.
    We also are unpersuaded by petitioners’ third assertion that
    the salaries and benefits did not generate a significant future
    benefit to ACC.   These costs contributed directly to ACC’s
    receipt in later years of interest and excess principal income.
    This income significantly benefitted ACC in that it was the bread
    and butter of its operation.   Because ACC’s payment to its
    employees of the disputed salaries and benefits provided ACC with
    such a significant long-term benefit, they are capital
    expenditures.   See INDOPCO, Inc. v. Commissioner, 
    503 U.S. 79
    (1992); see also Commissioner v. Idaho Power Co., 
    418 U.S. 1
    (1974); Woodward v. Commissioner, 
    397 U.S. 572
     (1970); United
    States v. Hilton Hotels Corp., 
    397 U.S. 580
     (1970); cf. Colonial
    Am. Life Ins. Co. v. Commissioner, 
    491 U.S. 244
    , 251 n.5 (1989)
    (“the important point is * * * whether the taxpayer is investing
    in an asset or economic interest with an income-producing life
    that extends substantially beyond the taxable year”).
    34
    Nor is a cost deductible merely because it preceded the
    final decision as to the acquisition of a specific asset.
    - 69 -
    The amicus for FNMA concludes as to the salaries and
    benefits that capitalizing these costs will administratively
    burden ACC.   We disagree.   It was ACC that identified these costs
    for its auditors in order to capitalize the costs for financial
    accounting purposes.   Contrary to the amicus’ assertion, under
    the facts of this case, it is not “impossible” to identify the
    portion of the salaries and benefits which are attributable to
    each installment contract.35
    We now turn to the PPM-related expenditures.   Respondent
    determined and argues that ACC must capitalize these
    expenditures.   Respondent points to the fact that the repayment
    of the Notes extended beyond the year of their issuance.
    Petitioners maintain that the PPM expenditures are currently
    deductible.   Petitioners repeat many of the same arguments which
    we have rejected as to the salaries and benefits, stressing their
    assertion that ACC issued the Notes in order to obtain funds to
    acquire installment contracts in the ordinary course of its
    business.   Petitioners also add, with citations to Bonded
    Mortgage Co. v. Commissioner, 
    70 F.2d 341
     (4th Cir. 1934), revg.
    and remanding 
    27 B.T.A. 965
     (1933), and Franklin Title & Trust
    Co. v. Commissioner, 
    32 B.T.A. 266
     (1935), that financing
    35
    The amicus also raises an issue as to whether ACC’s
    income was reflected clearly, within the meaning of sec. 446(b),
    by its deduction of the salaries and benefits. This issue was
    not raised by the parties and is not before the Court. We
    decline the amicus’ invitation to address it.
    - 70 -
    companies such as ACC may currently expense commissions connected
    to the issuance of long-term debt.
    We agree with respondent that the PPM expenditures are
    capital expenditures.36       As to each of petitioners’ arguments
    which we rejected above, we also reject them here as applied to
    the PPM expenditures for the reasons stated above.        As to
    petitioners’ additional argument, we reject that argument as
    well.        The fact that ACC incurred the PPM expenditures in
    borrowing funds means that the expenditures are capital
    expenditures and must be amortized over the life of the debt.
    See, e.g., Austin Co. v. Commissioner, 
    71 T.C. 955
    , 964-965
    (1979); Enoch v. Commissioner, 
    57 T.C. 781
    , 794 (1972); Longview
    Hilton Hotel Co. v. Commissioner, 
    9 T.C. 180
    , 182-183 (1947);
    Lovejoy v. Commissioner, 
    18 B.T.A. 1179
    , 1181-1183 (1930); see
    also S. & L. Bldg. Corp. v. Commissioner, 
    19 B.T.A. 788
    , 795-796
    (1930), revd. on other grounds 
    60 F.2d 719
     (2d Cir. 1932), revd.
    sub nom. Burnet v. S. & L. Bldg. Corp., 
    288 U.S. 406
     (1933);
    compare Anover Realty Corp. v. Commissioner, 
    33 T.C. 671
    , 675
    (1960), wherein we stated:
    It is not the purpose for which the loan is made
    that is important. It is the purpose of the
    expenditure for loan discounts and expenses. That
    36
    In contrast with respondent, however, we allow ACC to
    deduct for 1994, under sec. 165(a), the portion of those
    expenditures that was attributable to the offering that was
    abandoned in that year. See Ellis Banking Corp. v. Commissioner,
    688 F.2d at 1382.
    - 71 -
    purpose is to obtain financing or the use of money over
    a fixed period extending beyond the year of borrowing.
    When we analyze the reason behind the rule of
    amortizing such debt expenses, the distinction between
    this case and S. & L. Building Corporation and Longview
    Hilton Hotel Co. vanishes. Here, as in the cited
    cases, the mortgage discounts and expenses represent
    the cost of money borrowed for a period extending
    beyond the year of borrowing. It matters not that the
    proceeds of the loans be used to build an income--
    producing warehouse as in Julia Stow Lovejoy, or "to
    purchase additional properties" as in S. & L. Building
    Corporation or to buy the mortgaged premises, as in the
    instant case. In all such cases the expenditure
    represents an expenditure for the cost of the use of
    money and not a capital expenditure for the cost of any
    asset obtained by the use of the proceeds of the money
    borrowed.
    As to the two cases upon which petitioners rely to support their
    additional argument, those cases are factually distinguishable
    from the case at hand and require no further discussion.
    We have considered each of the arguments made by the parties
    and by the amici.   We have rejected all arguments not discussed
    herein as meritless.
    Decisions will be entered
    under Rule 155.
    Reviewed by the Court.
    WELLS, CHABOT, COHEN, GERBER, COLVIN, VASQUEZ, and THORNTON,
    JJ., agree with this majority opinion.
    CHIECHI, J., did not participate in the consideration of
    this opinion.
    - 72 -
    SWIFT, J., concurring:       Although I would go further than the
    majority and allow all of the salaries and overhead included in
    the so-called installment contract expenditures to be currently
    deductible, I do not dissent because I largely agree with the
    result reached by the majority and with the movement reflected
    therein away from the approach that would capitalize otherwise
    routine business expenses.
    In PNC Bancorp, Inc. v. Commissioner, 
    110 T.C. 349
    , 370
    (1998), revd. 
    212 F.3d 822
     (3d Cir. 2000), a case involving the
    treatment of salary expenses very similar to those involved
    herein (namely, salary expenses of credit institutions whose
    officers and employees, among other things, investigate the
    creditworthiness of potential borrowers), we concluded that a
    portion of the salary expenses should be “assimilated” into the
    capital costs of the loans that were approved.
    The Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit disagreed and
    held that the salaries and other expenses reflected “recurring,
    routine day-to-day business” activities that did not produce
    significant future benefits and therefore that the expenses were
    currently deductible.        PNC Bancorp, Inc. v. Commissioner, 212
    F.3d at 834.    The Court of Appeals resolved not to expand the
    type of expenses that must be capitalized “so as to drastically
    limit what might be considered as 'ordinary and necessary'
    expenses.”     Id. at 830.
    - 73 -
    I believe the facts noted below reflect the noncapital,
    ordinary and necessary nature of all of the salary and overhead
    expenses that are in issue herein and should control resolution
    of this fact issue.
    (1) The salaries ACC paid were routine, reasonable and
    recurring, and the amounts thereof, including increases and
    bonuses thereto, were tied to overall net company profits, not to
    the acquisition of specific installment loans.    As the Supreme
    Court explained:
    Of course, reasonable wages [salaries] paid
    in the carrying on of a trade or business
    qualify as a deduction from gross income.
    * * * [Commissioner v. Idaho Power Co., 
    418 U.S. 1
    , 13 (1974); emphasis added.]
    (2) Generally, and for the most part, the specific benefits
    initially received by ACC from the services of its employees
    investigating proposed installment loans (namely, the receipt of
    information needed to review the creditworthiness of potential
    debtors on the installment loans) were exhausted or lost by ACC
    almost simultaneously with the receipt of the benefits (i.e., for
    various reasons the large majority of the proposed installment
    loans that were investigated and considered by ACC were abandoned
    within a day (majority op. p. 9)).    In my opinion, this fact
    - 74 -
    reflects strongly on the ordinary, noncapital nature of all of
    ACC’s related salary and overhead expenses and rebuts the
    appropriateness of some complicated and rather arbitrary
    adjustment under which a portion of the expenses would be
    capitalized.
    As stated by the Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit in
    Godfrey v. Commissioner, 
    335 F.2d 82
    , 85 (6th Cir. 1964), the
    appellate venue for these cases:
    The test of an ordinary business expense is
    whether it is of a recurring nature and its
    benefit is generally exhausted within a year.
    * * * [Emphasis added.]
    Generally, the benefits ACC received were exhausted within a few
    hours after a majority of the prospective installment loans were
    investigated and considered.
    Under section 1.263(a)-2(a), Income Tax Regs., expenses are
    to be capitalized where they produce benefits to a taxpayer with
    a life substantially beyond a year.     Computing the average life
    of all of the installment loans investigated and considered by
    ACC’s employees (including the loan applications rejected or
    withdrawn as well as those approved) produces an average life for
    - 75 -
    all of the installment loans investigated and considered of 6.6
    months for 1993 and 7.4 months for 1994.1                  Because a majority of
    the installment loans investigated and considered by ACC were
    never purchased and because the average life of all of the
    installment loans (factoring in all installment loans
    investigated and considered) was not beyond one year, I believe
    it would be erroneous to conclude generally that the allegedly
    related salaries and overhead provided benefits to ACC with a
    life “substantially beyond” one year.
    (3) The salaries and overhead were not paid by ACC in
    connection with any specific installment loans.                       Note the Supreme
    Court’s words, also from Commissioner v. Idaho Power Co., 418
    U.S. at 13, linking expenditures to be capitalized to specific
    capital assets:
    But when wages [salaries] are paid in connection with
    the construction or acquisition of a capital asset,
    they must be capitalized and are then entitled to be
    1
    My computation of the average life of ACC’s installment
    loans investigated and considered (including in the “Total” loans
    those installment loans rejected or withdrawn) is shown below:
    Number of Installment Loans
    Rejected or                              Average Duration              Average Duration
    Year    Withdrawn   Accepted   Total            of Accepted Loans               of All Loans*
    1993     1,131        693      1,824              17.5 months                    6.6 months
    1994     1,338        820      2,158              19.5 months                    7.4 months
    * For 1993 [(1,131 V 0)     +   (693 V 17.5)]   ÷   1,824   =   6.6.
    For 1994 [(1,338 V 0)   +   (820 V 19.5)]   ÷   2,158   =   7.4.
    - 76 -
    amortized over the life of the capital asset so
    acquired. * * * [Emphasis added.]
    The point is not whether there is only one capital asset or many
    capital assets to which expenses may be attached and capitalized.
    Rather, the point is that to require capitalization of what are
    otherwise routine and recurring ordinary and necessary expenses,
    the expenses must be directly linked and associated with very
    specific and identifiable capital assets.
    (4) Services relating to ACC’s credit investigations that
    were performed by ACC employees simply constituted investigatory
    activities and as such the related salaries and overhead expenses
    should be currently deductible.   See Wells Fargo & Co. & Subs. v.
    Commissioner, 
    224 F.3d 874
    , 887-888 (8th Cir. 2000), affg. in
    part and revg. in part Norwest Corp. & Subs. v. Commissioner, 
    112 T.C. 89
     (1999).
    (5) Quite contrary to a possible reading of the majority
    opinion (see Ruwe, J., concurring op. p.79), ACC’s primary and
    underlying business activity is not the “purchase” of installment
    loans.   Rather, it is the “holding” of those loans and the
    associated provision of funds to debtors and the credit
    intermediation relating thereto (and all that is encompassed
    within credit intermediation) that ACC provides that constitute
    ACC’s primary, dominant, and underlying business activity.
    Presumably, the amount of ACC’s income and profit in any one
    year relates primarily to its annual cost of funds and to the
    - 77 -
    losses associated with delinquent loan repayments, on the one
    hand, as compared to the interest income ACC receives each year
    on the installment loans, on the other hand.     For Federal income
    tax matching purposes, those expenses and income would appear to
    be matched fully and completely on ACC’s annual Federal income
    tax returns, as filed.     To now require capitalization, as
    respondent would, of a portion of ACC’s regular and routine
    salary and overhead expenses, on the ground that they somehow
    relate directly to the acquisition of specific installment loans
    would, in my opinion, reflect a misunderstanding of the true
    nature (1) of ACC’s underlying business activity, (2) of ACC’s
    costs and expenses, and (3) of ACC’s income and profit.
    As the majority opinion states (majority op. p. 4), ACC was
    formed “to provide alternate financing”.     ACC’s credit
    investigations and its credit risk decisions relating thereto
    represent just one of the steps (and certainly not the dominant
    step) in ACC’s business of credit intermediation (i.e., of
    providing “financing”).2
    2
    I acknowledge that the majority opinion (majority op. p.
    4) is less than clear in its statement of the business purpose of
    ACC. Nevertheless, the majority does acknowledge the important
    role of ACC in providing “financing”, which in my opinion and
    experience involves much more than just investigating loan
    applicants and approving or rejecting the applications.
    - 78 -
    Although the majority would allow most of ACC’s salary
    expenses in issue to be currently deductible, I would go further
    and hold all of such salaries to be currently deductible.
    I also am puzzled by the majority's different treatment of
    salaries and overhead expenses.   I believe that on the particular
    facts of this case both salaries and overhead expenses should
    receive consistent treatment and, as indicated, be fully
    deductible.
    The concluding comments made by the Court of Appeals for the
    Third Circuit in PNC Bancorp, Inc. v. Commissioner, 212 F.3d at
    835, reflect much of my thinking on the issue before us.    I quote
    a portion thereof:
    we find the case before us today to be much farther
    from the heartland of the traditional capital
    expenditure (a “permanent improvement or betterment”)
    than are the scenarios at issue in INDOPCO and Lincoln
    Savings. We will not mechanistically apply phrases
    from those precedents in ignorance of the realities of
    the facts before us. We see no principled distinction
    between the costs at issue here and other costs
    incurred as “ordinary expenses” by banks. [Id.]
    - 79 -
    RUWE, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part:                             I
    agree with the majority’s legal analysis and its application of
    that analysis to ACC’s expenditures for salaries and benefits
    (hereinafter “salaries”) that were incurred in connection with
    the acquisition of installment contracts.                       The majority correctly
    holds that the percentage of salaries related to credit analysis
    activities must be capitalized.                  However, the majority then holds
    that “overhead” expenditures need not be capitalized.                             I disagree
    with the majority’s conclusion that the “overhead” expenses were
    not directly related to the acquisition of installment contracts
    because, in my opinion, that conclusion is inconsistent with the
    majority’s specific findings of fact.
    The following breakdown of specific expenditures appears on
    page 11 of the majority’s findings of fact:
    Breakdown of Specific Expenditures
    1993
    Salary                                     Percentage of Total Expenses Amount
    And          Benefits                      Related to ACC’s Credit        In
    Employee         Wages   FICA MESC/FUTA BC/BS Total Expense    Analysis Activities        Issue
    Steve Balan     $69,359 $4,504  $313    $4,062   $78,238               50                $39,119
    James Blasius    89,769 4,713    313     4,062    98,857               75                 74,143
    Cass Budzynowski 43,500 3,213    313     1,790    48,816              100                 48,816
    Hope McGee       16,248 1,216    313     3,692    21,469              100                 21,469
    Kelly            16,100 1,193    313     1,790    19,396              100                 19,396
    Stacey           10,280    767   313     2,086    13,446               75                 10,085
    245,256 15,606 1,878    17,482   280,222                                 213,028
    Overhead Items
    Printing                                               9,412           75                  7,059
    Telephone                                             12,454           75                  9,341
    Computer                                              19,598           95                 18,618
    Rent                                                  34,413           50                 17,207
    Utilities                                              5,162           50                  2,581
    81,039                              54,806
    361,261                             267,832
    - 80 -
    1994
    Salary,
    Wages, and                                    Percentage of Total Expenses Amount
    Estimated        Benefits                     Related to ACC’s Credit        In
    Employee         Bonus    FICA MESC/FUTA BC/BS Total Expense   Analysis Activities        Issue
    Steve Balan     $95,820 $4,886   $218    $4,932  $105,856              40                $42,342
    James Blasius   139,216 5,776     218     4,932   150,142              50                 75,071
    Cass Budzynowski 52,846 3,813     218     2,177    59,054             100                 59,054
    Hope McGee       11,508     842   218     4,932    17,500             100                 17,500
    Kelly            22,200 1,584     218     2,177    26,179             100                 26,179
    Sue              24,500 1,760     218     4,932    31,410             100                 31,410
    Kathy            16,921 1,256     218     4,932    23,327              75                 17,495
    Stacey            1,218      93    32       411     1,754              75                  1,316
    Kirsten           2,438     167    57       181     2,843             100                  2,843
    366,667 20,177 1,615     29,606   418,065                                273,210
    Overhead Items
    Printing                                               8,663           75                  6,497
    Telephone                                             15,133           60                  9,080
    Computer                                              25,919           95                 24,623
    Rent                                                  37,875           60                 22,725
    Utilities                                              5,126           60                  3,076
    92,716                              66,001
    510,782                             339,211
    These expenditures were all incurred in ACC’s business.                               The
    majority finds that ACC’s only business operation was the
    acquisition of installment contracts and the servicing of those
    contracts.1       With respect to the salaries and “overhead” expenses
    found to be related to ACC’s credit analysis activities ($267,832
    for 1993 and $339,211 for 1994),2 the majority makes the
    following finding of fact:
    In 1993 and 1994, ACC paid installment contracts
    expenditures totaling $267,832 and $339,211,
    respectively, * * * which were attributable to ACC’s
    obtaining of credit reports and screening of credit
    histories, related primarily to the portion of ACC’s
    payroll and overhead expenses that was attributable to
    its credit analysis activities.6 None of these
    1
    The majority finds: “Its sole business operation is (1) the
    acquisition of installment contracts from automobile dealers * *
    * and (2) the servicing of those contracts.” Majority op. pp. 4-
    5.
    2
    The parties agree with the allocations in the above table.
    - 81 -
    expenditures included any postacquisition or servicing
    expenses. * * *
    6
    We use the term “credit analysis activities” to
    refer to ACC’s credit review services and its funding
    services (i.e., ACC’s issuance of the checks to dealers
    in consideration for the installment contracts).
    [Majority op. p. 10; emphasis added.]
    From the majority’s findings of fact I conclude:    (1) ACC’s
    business operation consisted of the acquisition of installment
    contracts and the postacquisition servicing of those contracts;
    and (2) of the total expenses for salaries and overhead for 1993
    and 1994, $267,832 for 1993 and $339,211 for 1994 were related to
    credit analysis activities and were not related to any other
    business operations of ACC.3   To me, the logical conclusion is
    that both salaries and overhead expenses, totaling $267,832 for
    1993 and $339,211 for 1994, were exclusively for ACC’s
    acquisition of installment contracts and thus were “directly”
    related to the acquisition of installment contracts.
    The percentage of ACC’s salaries and “overhead” expenses
    that related exclusively to ACC’s credit analysis activities
    indicates that most of ACC’s business activity concerned the
    acquisition of installment contracts.   For example, 76 percent of
    salaries and 68 percent of “overhead” expenses for 1993 were
    related to ACC’s credit analysis activities.   For 1994, the
    3
    The majority finds that “None of these expenditures
    included any postacquisition or servicing expenses.” Majority
    op. p. 10. ACC’s only business operation was the acquiring of
    installment contracts and the postacquisition servicing of those
    installment contracts.
    - 82 -
    percentages were 65 percent and 71 percent, respectively.    The
    majority finds that “Each of the employees spent a significant
    portion of his or her time working on credit analysis activities
    * * * and, but for ACC’s anticipated acquisition of installment
    contracts, ACC would not have incurred the salaries and benefits
    attributable to those activities.”    Majority op. pp. 27-28.
    Absent evidence to the contrary, it would seem to follow
    logically that if ACC’s business operation had not included
    credit analysis activities, ACC would never have incurred the
    overhead expenses attributable to those activities.
    The majority correctly states that the “overhead” expenses
    would be capital in nature if they “originated” in ACC’s process
    of acquiring installment contracts.    Majority op. p. 29.
    However, the majority reasons that the “overhead” expenses were
    not directly related to the acquisition of installment contracts
    because:
    None of these routine and recurring expenses originated
    in the process of ACC’s acquisition of installment
    contracts, nor, in fact, in any anticipated acquisition
    at all. ACC would have continued to incur most of
    these expenses in the ordinary course of its business
    had its business only been to service the installment
    contracts. * * * [Id.]
    There is nothing in the majority’s specific findings of fact to
    support the conclusion that overhead expenses related to credit
    analysis activities did not “originate” in the process of ACC’s
    - 83 -
    acquisition of installment contracts.4     Indeed, it would be
    logical to conclude that the type and amount of these “overhead”
    expenses did “originate” in ACC’s acquisition of installment
    contracts.   After all, this activity was ACC’s dominant activity.
    If ACC had never engaged in acquiring installment contracts, most
    of its expenditures for both salaries and overhead expenses would
    have been unnecessary in the first place.
    The majority reasons that rent and utilities were “generally
    fixed charges which had no meaningful relation to the number of
    credit applications analyzed (or the number of installment
    contracts acquired) by ACC.”   Majority op. p. 29.    Again, with
    the possible exception of rent,5 there are no specific findings
    of fact to support this rationale.      Logic would indicate that if
    ACC no longer engaged in credit analysis activities, then its
    need for office space would decrease, and it would take steps to
    reduce its rental and utility costs.     The same logic would apply
    even more so to printing, telephone, and computer costs.     There
    is nothing in the majority’s findings to indicate that these were
    4
    It should be noted in this regard that petitioners bear
    “the burden of clearly showing the right to the claimed
    deduction”. INDOPCO, Inc. v. Commissioner, 
    503 U.S. 79
    , 84
    (1992).
    5
    The majority finds that ACC had a 5-year lease that began
    in October 1992. There is no discussion of the specific terms of
    the lease other than the amount of monthly rent.
    - 84 -
    fixed costs.6    Approximately 75 percent7 of the printing and
    telephone costs were attributable exclusively to ACC’s credit
    analysis activities.     Ninety-five percent of the expenses for
    computers were related exclusively to ACC’s credit analysis
    activities during the years in issue.     One can only wonder how
    the majority would have treated computer expenses if 100 percent
    of such expenses were allocable to ACC’s credit analysis
    activities.
    The majority provides no legal basis for distinguishing
    between expenditures for salaries and expenditures for “overhead”
    expenses.   Indeed, the majority correctly states that overhead
    expenses “are capital in nature to the extent that they
    originated in ACC’s acquisition process, or, in other words, were
    directly related to ACC’s anticipated acquisition of installment
    contracts.”     Majority op. p. 29.   Therefore, my disagreement with
    the majority is based on what I view as the logical disconnect
    between the majority’s specific findings of fact and the
    majority’s rationale for concluding that the “overhead” expenses
    6
    The majority notes a variation in printing, telephone, and
    computer costs from one year to another but does not identify the
    cause. See majority op. pp. 29-30.
    7
    For 1993, 75 percent of printing and telephone costs were
    attributable to ACC’s credit analysis activities. For 1994, 75
    percent of printing costs and 60 percent of telephone costs were
    attributable to ACC’s credit analysis activities.
    - 85 -
    were not directly related to ACC’s credit analysis activities.
    It is for that reason alone that I dissent.
    WHALEN, HALPERN, BEGHE, FOLEY, GALE, and MARVEL, JJ., agree
    with this concurring in part and dissenting in part opinion.
    - 86 -
    HALPERN, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part:
    I concur in most of the majority’s report, but, like Judge Ruwe,
    whom I join, I dissent from the majority’s treatment of the
    overhead items-–printing, telephone, computer, rent, and
    utilities (overhead).
    I.   Introduction
    Petitioners’ S corporation, Automotive Credit Corporation
    (ACC), cannot deduct its expenditures for the installment
    contracts here in question because such expenditures are capital
    in nature.    They are capital in nature because each such
    expenditure purchases for ACC the right to receive monthly
    payments for a term ranging from 12 to 36 months.    With respect
    to the overhead, the question is whether ACC may deduct its
    overhead costs related (but, in the majority’s view, only
    indirectly related) to such capital expenditures.    Principally
    for the reasons set forth by Judge Ruwe, I do not believe that
    they may.    I write separately, however, to make the following
    points:   (1) The majority distinguishes between directly related
    and indirectly related costs without telling us how to draw that
    distinction.    In short, the majority uses the quality of
    relatedness not in support of any analysis but only to express a
    conclusion (i.e., the overhead was not directly related to ACC’s
    capital expenditures).    (2) The majority’s analysis also risks
    confusion with existing law (and accounting principles) that
    distinguish “direct” costs from “indirect” costs.    Moreover,
    - 87 -
    under that law (and those principles), indirect costs (including
    overhead) are often required to be capitalized.   (3) To the
    extent the majority distinguishes directly related from
    indirectly related costs, it seems to be saying that fixed costs
    are period costs because they are only indirectly related to any
    capital expenditure.   That is also not an accurate statement of
    current law (and accounting principles) that often require
    absorption or full costing methods of accounting for fixed costs.
    (4) The majority has ignored the proper mode of analysis, which
    is to determine whether ACC’s accounting for overhead clearly
    reflects its income.
    II.   Agreement of the Parties
    The parties agree that the amounts identified by the
    majority as ACC’s installment contract expenditures were
    “related” to ACC’s credit analysis activities.    Apparently, they
    agree that overhead was related to ACC’s credit analysis
    activities because items such as the telephone and computers
    facilitated ACC’s obtaining of credit reports and screening of
    credit histories.   In turn, the credit reports and case histories
    assisted ACC’s employees in determining that any particular
    installment contract presented a sufficiently low expectation of
    nonperformance to justify its purchase.   ACC treated the
    installment contract expenditures (including overhead)
    disparately for financial accounting and Federal income tax
    - 88 -
    purpose, matching such expenditures to the expected life of the
    related installment contracts for financial accounting purposes
    but deducting them for Federal income tax purposes, at least for
    1993.
    III.    Majority’s Approach
    According to the majority:   Overhead expenses must be
    capitalized only if they are directly related to the acquisition
    of a capital asset, and such expenses are directly related to the
    acquisition of a capital asset only to the extent that they
    increase on account of such acquisition.      For the reasons
    discussed below, I do not believe that the majority’s limitation
    of overhead costs subject to capitalization to (what I will refer
    to as) incremental overhead costs is an accurate application of
    the law, nor do I believe that it provides an improvement to the
    law relating to the treatment of overhead costs.
    IV.     Overhead
    Overhead is, by definition, an indirect cost.   See, e.g.,
    Kohler’s Dictionary for Accountants 366 (Cooper & Ijiri, eds.,
    6th ed. 1983):
    overhead 1. Any cost of doing business other than a
    direct cost of an output of product or service.
    2. A generic name for manufacturing costs of materials
    and services not readily identifiable with the products
    or services that constitute the main outputs of an
    operation. * * *
    A cost is an indirect cost, and, thus, overhead, if, at the time
    the cost is incurred, it is not identifiable with an individual
    - 89 -
    department, product, activity, or other object to be costed
    (without distinction, costing unit).   Because overhead costs are
    not identifiable with a costing unit, some process is necessary
    to allocate overhead among costing units:
    Distinctions between overhead costs and direct
    costs rest upon the methods of measuring unit costs.
    Direct costs can be identified with units to be costed
    (i.e., with departments, activities, orders, products)
    at the time the cost is incurred. This is accomplished
    by measuring quantities of materials and hours of labor
    used for each costing unit. * * *
    Overhead costs cannot, as a practical matter, be
    traced directly to individual costing units, either
    because the process of making direct measurements is
    judged wasteful or because there is no acceptable
    method of direct measurement available. As an example
    of a too costly measurement, electric power used by
    each department in a factory can be measured, but this
    is not always done because management does not wish to
    incur the expense of meters and records. Examples of
    the lack of a method of distribution may be observed in
    any endeavor to determine how much of the cost incurred
    for plant protection, accounting, or the president’s
    office applies to each unit of production.
    Id. at 367.   As other authorities on accounting state:   “Indirect
    expenses, by their very nature, can be assigned to departments
    only by a process of allocation.”   Meigs et al., Accounting, The
    Basis for Business Decisions 820 (4th ed. 1977).
    Although such process of allocation undoubtedly involves
    many judgments and uncertainties, there are certain standards:
    Accounting literature is generally consistent in
    stating that indirect costs should be charged against
    operations as incurred if they have no arguable cause-
    and-effect relationship with future revenues (such as
    the salary of a mailroom clerk). However, many
    allocations of indirect costs affect future periods; an
    - 90 -
    example is the allocation of factory overhead to units
    of inventory produced during a period and remaining on
    hand at period-end.
    Minter et al., Handbook of Accounting and Auditing C2.06[4] (2001
    ed.).    One area of uncertainty concerns the treatment of fixed
    overhead costs.    In Belkaoui, the Handbook of Cost Accounting
    Theory and Techniques 289 (1991), the author states:      “The issue
    of whether inventories should be costed at variable or full cost
    remains a subject of debate in both academic and business worlds.
    The controversy centers mainly on two inventory valuation
    methods:    the direct or variable costing method and the
    absorption or full costing method.”       That debate is relevant to
    our analysis since, as Professor Belkaoui states:      “The main
    difference between product costing methods lies in the accounting
    treatment of fixed manufacturing overhead.      Under the direct
    costing method, the fixed manufacturing overhead is regarded as a
    period cost (that is, an expired cost to be immediately charged
    against period sales). ”    Id. at 291.     Under the absorption
    costing method, on the other hand, “all the manufacturing costs,
    whether variable or fixed, are treated as product costs and hence
    inventoried with the products.”    Id.1    Fixed overhead, thus, is
    only released to offset receipts as it flows into cost of goods
    1
    Professor Belkaoui adds: “Consequently, under absorption
    costing, the period costs are limited to both selling and
    administrative overhead.” Belkaoui, Handbook of Cost Accounting
    Theory and Techniques, 291 (1991).
    - 91 -
    sold (which may or may not be in the period such overhead is
    incurred).   See id. at 293.
    Professor Belkaoui states that the central issue affecting
    income determination is whether fixed manufacturing costs are
    product or period costs.      Id. at 299.   He concludes:    “From the
    theoretical point of view, both methods [direct costing and
    absorption] appear to be internally consistent.      * * *    From the
    practical point of view as well, both methods have merit.        Thus,
    there is no absolute answer to whether a cost is a product or a
    period cost.”   Id. at 305.
    For financial accounting purposes, the treatment of overhead
    starts with the recognition that overhead costs are indirect and,
    thus, in need of allocation, and it proceeds from there to
    allocate such expenses pursuant to various standards, practices,
    and judgments, in order to serve management’s (and other’s) needs
    for information (including income determination).      See Kohler’s
    Dictionary for Accountants     366–370 (Cooper & Ijiri eds., 6th ed.
    1983).
    Overhead presents no different challenge for Federal income
    tax purposes.   It is, thus, paradoxical that the majority’s
    approach should be that all inquiry ends once it is determined
    that an overhead cost is only indirectly related to the purchase
    of a capital asset.
    - 92 -
    V.   Clear Reflection of Income
    A.    Introduction
    By characterizing the printing, telephone, computer, rent,
    and utilities costs here in question as overhead, petitioner and
    the majority do no more than identify that allocation is
    required.     In concluding that such costs need not be capitalized,
    the majority accepts without question ACC’s allocation, which
    allocates the costs to ACC’s postacquisition and servicing
    activities (for which an immediate deduction is available).     The
    majority fails to apply any criteria to its acceptance of ACC’s
    allocation.     Notwithstanding that such allocation may be
    acceptable (even required) for financial accounting purposes, see
    majority op. p. 12 note 9, it still involves a method of
    accounting.     For Federal income tax purposes, the term “method of
    accounting” “includes not only the over-all method of accounting
    of the taxpayer but also the accounting treatment of any item.”
    Sec. 1.446-1(a)(1), Income Tax Regs.; see also sec 1.446-
    1(e)(2)(ii)(a), Income Tax Regs. (a change in method of
    accounting includes any change in the treatment of any “material
    item”:     “A material item is any item which involves the proper
    time for the inclusion of the item in income or the taking of a
    deduction.”     (Emphasis added.)).   A taxpayer’s method of
    accounting must clearly reflect income or the Secretary may
    require the computation of taxable income under a method of
    - 93 -
    accounting that does clearly reflect income.    See sec. 446(b).
    Notwithstanding the majority’s disclaimer that it is not passing
    on whether ACC’s method of accounting clearly reflected its
    income, see majority op. p. 69 note 37, that is precisely what it
    is doing.
    B.   Clear Reflection and Section 263
    We have previously addressed the interplay between the
    clear-reflection standard and the requirements of section 263.
    In Fort Howard Paper Co. v. Commissioner, 
    49 T.C. 275
     (1967), the
    core issue was how to treat overhead in determining the cost of
    self-constructed assets.   We rejected the Commissioner’s
    principal argument that section 263 draws a clear line between
    deductible expenses and capital expenditures.    We stated that
    consideration necessarily had to be given to whether the
    taxpayer’s treatment of the overhead in question clearly
    reflected income:
    We reject as without merit respondent’s contention
    that section 263 of the Code is in and of itself
    dispositive of the issue before us. By requiring the
    capitalization of amounts ‘paid out for new buildings
    or for permanent improvements or betterments made to
    increase the value of any property,’ such section begs
    the very question we are asked to answer. We are
    satisfied that, under the circumstances involved
    herein, sections 263 and 446 are inextricably
    intertwined. A contrary view would encase the general
    provisions of section 263 with an inflexibility and
    sterility neither mandated to carry out the intent of
    Congress nor required for the effective discharge of
    respondent’s revenue-collecting responsibilities.
    Accordingly, we turn to a determination as to whether
    petitioner’s method of accounting ‘clearly reflects
    - 94 -
    income’ pursuant to the provisions of section 446.
    * * *
    Id. at 283–284.
    In Fort Howard Paper Co., we found the taxpayer’s method of
    accounting clearly to reflect income notwithstanding that the
    taxpayer allocated no overhead to self-constructed property under
    the “incremental cost” method of accounting adopted by him.    The
    Commissioner argued for the “full absorption cost” method, which
    would have required an allocation of overhead to self-constructed
    assets.   We stated:
    Under all the circumstances herein, we hold that
    petitioner has satisfied its heavy burden and has
    convinced us that it employed a generally accepted
    method of accounting which ‘clearly reflects its
    income.’ In so doing, we neither hold nor imply that,
    under all circumstances, a taxpayer has a right to
    choose between alternative generally accepted methods
    of accounting or that respondent may not, under some
    circumstances, require a taxpayer to accept his
    determination as to a preferred selection among such
    alternatives. We hold merely that where a taxpayer, in
    a complicated area such as is involved herein, has over
    a long period of time consistently applied a generally
    accepted accounting method (which is considered
    ‘clearly to reflect’ income by competent professional
    authority and is not specifically in derogation of any
    provision of the Internal Revenue Code) and where this
    method has been frequently applied by respondent in
    making adjustments to the taxable income of the same
    taxpayer (as distinguished from respondent’s mere
    failure to object to its use by such taxpayer), the
    taxpayer’s choice of method will not be disturbed.
    * * *
    Id. at 286–287 (citations omitted).   In Coors v. Commissioner,
    
    60 T.C. 368
    , 397 (1973), affd. 
    519 F.2d 1280
     (10th Cir. 1975), we
    distinguished Fort Howard Paper Co. and found the taxpayer’s
    - 95 -
    method of accounting for the costs of self-constructed assets did
    not clearly reflect income, in part because it expensed
    incremental overhead costs.
    In Dana Corp. v. United States, 
    174 F.3d 1344
     (Fed. Cir.
    1999), the taxpayer corporation paid a law firm an annual
    retainer fee, which was paid to prevent the law firm from
    representing parties adverse to the taxpayer in a takeover
    attempt and for standing by to represent the taxpayer both if
    subject to a hostile takeover and in other matters.      Id. at 1346.
    The law firm received the retainer whether it rendered legal
    services during the retainer year or not.      Id. at 1350.   For some
    years it rendered no legal services and, during others, it
    rendered services in connection with deductible (non-capital)
    matters.   Id.   During the year in question, the law firm rendered
    services in connection with the taxpayer’s acquisition of a
    capital asset and credited the year’s retainer amount against the
    amount billed for those services.     Id.   For that year, the
    taxpayer deducted the retainer amount and capitalized the
    remaining fee.    Id.   The Court of Appeals disallowed the
    taxpayer’s deduction of the retainer amount, stating:     “Even
    though the retainer fees were allowed as deductible expenses for
    most of the years * * * [the taxpayer] paid them, the use of the
    fee in a particular year determines the deductibility of the
    expense in that year, and not the pattern of other years of
    - 96 -
    paying it.”     Id. at 1350-1351.   Although that issue was not
    decided on the basis of clear reflection of income, the taxpayer
    was required to allocate a fixed cost incurred for multiple
    purposes to a single, capital expenditure purpose.
    C.   Criticism of Majority
    My criticism of the majority is not, per se, with its
    finding that there were no incremental overhead costs
    attributable to capital expenditures (although I doubt that that
    is true).     My criticism is with the majority’s uncritical
    acceptance of the taxpayer’s method of accounting for overhead.
    Judge Tannenwald’s nuanced analysis in Fort Howard Paper Co. v.
    Commissioner, supra, exemplifies the considerations traditionally
    given to clear reflection of income cases.     Consider also Judge
    Dawson’s’ analysis in Coors v. Commissioner, supra.      The Supreme
    Court cases that figure so prominently in the majority’s
    analysis, see majority op. p. 18, are inapposite.     Simply, they
    do not address the accounting question here before us:     Namely,
    does it clearly reflect ACC’s income for Federal income tax
    purposes for ACC to use a method of accounting that allocates
    zero overhead to a costing unit (ACC’s credit analysis
    activities) to which such overhead concededly relates?     If ACC’s
    accounting method is rejected, and some or all of the overhead is
    allocated to ACC’s credit analysis activities, then, I suppose,
    such overhead would, in the majority’s terminology, be directly
    - 97 -
    related to those activities, and the Supreme Court cases would be
    no bar to capitalization.   The question here is not whether the
    overhead directly or indirectly relates to ACC’s credit analysis
    activities; the question is whether ACC has proven that its
    method of accounting clearly reflects its income.    It has not.
    D.   Majority’s Reasoning
    Once the majority’s approach is stripped of the erroneous
    notion that overhead can, without allocation, be identified to an
    individual costing unit (e.g, a capital expenditure), what
    remains is an approach that says that, for Federal income tax
    purposes, overhead need not be allocated to a costing unit when,
    if that costing unit were eliminated, the overhead would still be
    incurred.   Immediately, that approach raises analytic
    difficulties.   What if the overhead is incurred on account of two
    costing units (one a capital expenditure and one not), and the
    overhead would be incurred in the same amount if either (but not
    both) were eliminated?   Why is the default rule that the overhead
    is allocated in total to the noncapital expenditure?     Looked at
    from a different perspective, what if there is not a linear
    relationship between the taxpayer’s business activities and
    overhead?   The relationship may be step-wise, so that the
    taxpayer’s business activities would have to increase by some
    quantum before rent, for instance, would increase.    Assume, for
    example, that office space may only be rented in blocks of
    - 98 -
    several thousand square feet.    There is, thus, no incremental
    cost in adding a capital activity to space not fully occupied by
    a noncapital activity.   Likewise, there is no decrement in cost
    (once having added the capital activity) of completely
    subtracting the noncapital activity.     Must we conclude that the
    rent still is not allocable to the capital activity?    The fact
    that a taxpayer would incur the same overhead costs should it
    discontinue a capital activity may only be evidence that it is
    amenable to an economically inefficient use of space or
    equipment.   Short of adopting the accounting concept of direct or
    variable costing as normative for Federal income tax purposes,
    that does not seem to me a sufficient reason to foreclose any
    capitalization of fixed overhead.    If the direct or variable
    costing method is to be made normative for Federal income tax
    purposes, that is a job for the Secretary or the Congress, not
    for us.
    Besides which, as Judge Ruwe points out, the majority has
    made no specific findings of fact to support its conclusion that
    ACC’s acquisition activities did not give rise to any incremental
    overhead.    Indeed, petitioner has proposed the following finding
    of fact:    “ACC’s payroll and overhead costs attributable to
    credit review and other tasks relating to contract acquisition
    were not materially affected by whether any given installment
    contract was ultimately acquired by ACC from a dealership.”
    - 99 -
    That, of course, is not to say that overhead would not be
    materially affected if none of the contract acquisition activity
    were continued.
    VI.   Conclusion
    I am not here arguing for a rigid rule, requiring allocation
    of overhead in all cases where overhead is related to a capital
    activity.   See, e.g, Dunlap v. Commissioner, 
    74 T.C. 1377
    , 1426
    (1980) (no capitalization required for overhead where capital
    activity (acquisition of banks) was incidental to taxpayer’s
    principal business of holding and managing banks, revd. and
    remanded on another issue 
    670 F.2d 785
     (8th Cir. 1982)).2   I am,
    2
    The majority states: “[W]e conclude that any future
    benefit that ACC realized from these expenses was incidental to
    its payment of them so as not to require capitalization”.
    Majority op. p. 30. The majority has failed, however, to explain
    or quantify that finding. Without the overhead, the acquisition
    activity would, at the least, have been substantially reduced.
    Judge Swift, in his concurring opinion, suggests that any
    benefit derived by ACC from both salaries and overhead associated
    with the credit analysis activities was incidental to ACC’s
    primary business activity: the holding of installment loans. He
    would, therefore, permit a current deduction for both. Judge
    Swift’s position is based upon his finding that any benefits
    associated with the credit analysis activities “were exhausted or
    lost by ACC almost simultaneously with the receipt of the
    benefits”; i.e., most of the installment loans were immediately
    rejected. Swift, J., concurring op., p. 73. He also views such
    activities as “investigatory activities” the costs of which are
    currently deductible.
    I believe that all of the credit analysis activities related
    to the purchased loans. Therefore, the costs of that activity
    should be capitalized. The acquisition of installment loans was
    an essential part of ACC’s business, and an unavoidable cost of
    (continued...)
    - 100 -
    however, arguing against what appears to be the rigid approach of
    the majority that, if the taxpayer’s method of accounting for
    overhead is to deduct all overhead that does not increase on
    account of capital activities, such method of accounting clearly
    reflects income and, thus, must be accepted by respondent.
    I can do no better than to close with the majority’s own
    words:
    In our minds, an expenditure that produces both a
    current and long-term benefit is neither 100 percent
    deductible nor 100 percent capitalizable. Instead,
    regardless of whether the expenditure’s primary or
    predominant purpose is to benefit significantly the
    business’ current operation, on the one hand, or its
    long-term operation, on the other hand, the expenditure
    is capital in nature to the extent that it produces a
    significant long-term benefit and deductible to the
    remaining extent. * * *
    Majority op. p. 61.
    WHALEN and BEGHE, JJ. agree with this concurring in part and
    dissenting in part opinion.
    2
    (...continued)
    such acquisitions was that associated with the need to
    distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable risks; i.e., the
    credit analysis activities. Put simply, the hunt was essential
    to the capture.
    - 101 -
    BEGHE, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part:
    Having joined the side opinions of Judges Ruwe and Halpern, I
    write on to empathize with the concerns that may underlie the
    majority’s view on the treatment of the overhead costs, as
    amplified by Judge Swift’s concurrence.
    It bears observing that the oft-quoted passage in the
    opinion of the Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit in
    Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. v. Commissioner, 
    685 F.2d 212
    , 217
    (7th Cir. 1982), revg. T.C. Memo. 1981-255, which includes the
    statement that “The administrative costs of conceptual rigor are
    too great,” was uttered in the course of sustaining the
    Commissioner’s determination that the costs in issue in that case
    had to be capitalized.   However, the Court of Appeals then
    suggested that the distinction between recurring and nonrecurring
    costs might provide the line of demarcation in some cases, but
    went on to observe that the distinction wouldn’t make sense when
    the taxpayer’s sole business was the creation or acquisition of
    capital assets.   Although ACC’s business includes the servicing
    as well as the acquisition of capital assets, the relatively
    short average time the acquired loans remain outstanding raises
    questions about administrability, the costs of conceptual rigor,
    and whether the exercise has been worth the candle.
    These musings lead me to suggest the time has come to
    request respectfully that the Congress step in and enact some
    - 102 -
    bright-line rules that will provide guidance to the business
    community and the Internal Revenue Service and reduce the burdens
    of compliance and controversy on the public, the Service, and the
    courts.   Sections 195 and 197 come to mind as possible starting
    points or models.
    GALE, J., agrees with this concurring in part and dissenting
    in part opinion.
    

Document Info

Docket Number: 11794-99, 11855-99, 11863-99

Citation Numbers: 116 T.C. No. 27

Filed Date: 5/31/2001

Precedential Status: Precedential

Modified Date: 11/14/2018

Authorities (44)

Thor Power Tool Co. v. Commissioner , 99 S. Ct. 773 ( 1979 )

United States v. Hilton Hotels Corp. , 90 S. Ct. 1307 ( 1970 )

Dana Corporation v. United States, Defendant-Cross , 174 F.3d 1344 ( 1999 )

King Amusement Co. v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue , 44 F.2d 709 ( 1930 )

Cohan v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue , 39 F.2d 540 ( 1930 )

United States v. Hill , 113 S. Ct. 941 ( 1993 )

John K. Johnsen Frances Johnsen, Cross-Appellants v. ... , 794 F.2d 1157 ( 1986 )

Adolph Coors Company v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue , 519 F.2d 1280 ( 1975 )

United States v. Victor H. And Elsie Akin, Fred C. And ... , 248 F.2d 742 ( 1957 )

Briarcliff Candy Corporation, (Formerly Loft Candy ... , 475 F.2d 775 ( 1973 )

Ellis Banking Corporation v. Commissioner of Internal ... , 688 F.2d 1376 ( 1982 )

Bonded Mortgage Co. v. Commissioner of Int. Rev. , 70 F.2d 341 ( 1934 )

Idaho Power Company v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue , 477 F.2d 688 ( 1973 )

Indopco, Inc. v. Commissioner , 112 S. Ct. 1039 ( 1992 )

National Starch and Chemical Corporation v. Commissioner of ... , 918 F.2d 426 ( 1990 )

Helvering v. Winmill , 59 S. Ct. 45 ( 1938 )

Herbert K. Stevens and Mrs. Herbert K. L. L. Stevens v. ... , 388 F.2d 298 ( 1968 )

Southern Natural Gas Company v. The United States , 412 F.2d 1222 ( 1969 )

Edward R. Godfrey and Georgia G. Godfrey v. Commissioner of ... , 335 F.2d 82 ( 1964 )

Central Texas Savings & Loan Association v. United States , 731 F.2d 1181 ( 1984 )

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