State v. Olsen ( 2017 )


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    1tJPREME COURT, STATE OF WASHINGTON                      This opinion was ·filed for record
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    CHIEF JUSTICE           • J
    SUSAN L. CARLSON
    SUPREME COURT CLERK
    IN THE SUPREME COURT OF THE STATE OF WASHINGTON
    STATE OF WASHINGTON,                            )
    )
    Respondent,   )                 No. 93315-4
    )
    v.                                        )                    En Banc
    )
    BRITTANIE J. OLSEN,                             )
    )      Filed     AUG O3 2.617
    Petitioner.   )
    __________                                      )
    OWENS, J. - At issue in this case is whether a court may require a
    probationer convicted of driving under the influence (DUI) to submit to random
    urinalysis testing (UAs) for controlled substances. In particular, this issue centers on
    whether this testing violates DUI probationers' privacy interests under article I,
    section 7 of our state constitution. Random UAs do implicate a probationer's
    reduced privacy interests. But here, where urinalysis was authorized to monitor
    compliance with a valid probation condition requiring Olsen to refrain from drug and
    alcohol consumption, the testing does not violate article I, section 7. Accordingly,
    we affirm the Court of Appeals.
    State v. Olsen
    No. 93315-4
    FACTS
    The facts are undisputed. In June 2014, Brittanie Olsen pleaded guilty in
    Jefferson County District Court to one count of DUI, a gross misdemeanor offense
    under RCW 46.61.502. The court imposed a sentence of 364 days of confinement
    with 334 days suspended. As a condition of her suspended sentence, the court
    ordered that Olsen not consume alcohol, marijuana, or nonprescribed drugs. Over
    defense objection, the court also required Olsen to submit to "random urine
    analysis screens ... to ensure compliance with conditions regarding the
    consumption of alcohol and controlled substances." Clerk's Papers (CP) at 5.
    Olsen appealed to Jefferson County Superior Court, arguing that the random
    UAs requirement violated her privacy rights under the Fourth Amendment to the
    United States Constitution and article I, section 7 of the Washington Constitution.
    She contended a warrantless search of a misdemeanant probationer may not be
    random but instead "must be supported by a well-founded suspicion that the
    probationer has violated a condition of her sentence." CP at 7. The court agreed,
    vacated Olsen's sentence, and remanded to the district court for resentencing
    without the requirement that Olsen submit to random urine tests.
    The State appealed, and the Court of Appeals reversed, holding that
    "offenders on probation for DUI convictions do not have a privacy interest in
    2
    State v. Olsen
    No. 93315-4
    preventing the random collection and testing of their urine when used to ensure
    compliance with a probation condition prohibiting the consumption of alcohol,
    marijuana, and/or nonprescribed drugs." State v. Olsen, 
    194 Wash. App. 264
    , 272,
    
    374 P.3d 1209
    (2016). Olsen then petitioned this court for review, which was
    granted. State v. Olsen, 
    186 Wash. 2d 1017
    , 
    383 P.3d 1020
    (2016).
    ISSUE
    Do random UAs ordered to monitor compliance with a valid probation
    condition not to consume drugs or alcohol violate a DUI probationer's privacy
    interests under article I, section 7 of the Washington Constitution?
    ANALYSIS
    The Washington State Constitution provides that "[n]o person shall be
    disturbed in his private affairs, or his home invaded, without authority of law."
    CONST. art. I, § 7. It is well established that in some areas, this provision provides
    greater protection than the Fourth Amendment, its federal counterpart. York v.
    Wahkiakum Sch. Dist. No. 200, 
    163 Wash. 2d 297
    , 306, 
    178 P.3d 995
    (2008)
    (plurality opinion).
    One area of increased protection is the collection and testing of urine. 
    Id. at 307.
    Compared to the federal courts, "we offer heightened protection for bodily
    3
    State v. Olsen
    No. 93315-4
    1
    functions."          
    Id. Washington courts
    have generally held that for ordinary citizens,
    suspicionless urinalysis testing constitutes a disturbance of one's private affairs
    that, absent authority of law, violates article I, section 7. 
    Id. at 316
    (holding that
    suspicionless urinalysis tests of student athletes violate article I, section 7);
    Robinson v. City of Seattle, 
    102 Wash. App. 795
    , 811, 10 P .3d 452 (2000) (holding
    that preemployment UAs for jobs that do not directly relate to public safety violate
    article I, section 7).
    On the other hand, we have repeatedly upheld blood or urine tests of
    prisoners, probationers, and parolees without explicitly conducting an analysis
    under article I, section 7. For example, in In re Juveniles A, B, C, D, E, we upheld
    HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) tests of convicted felons without
    individualized suspicion, but decided the case under the Fourth Amendment
    instead of our state constitutional provision. 
    121 Wash. 2d 80
    , 98, 
    847 P.2d 455
    (1993); see also State v. Olivas, 
    122 Wash. 2d 73
    , 
    856 P.2d 1076
    (1993) (DNA
    (deoxyribonucleic acid) blood testing of convicted felons). In other cases, lower
    courts have upheld random drug testing of probationers or parolees on statutory
    1
    The parties seem to agree that article I, section 7 provides greater protection than the Fourth
    Amendment in this context. Accordingly, they do not analyze the issue under the federal
    constitution. Neither party has suggested performing an analysis under State v. Gunwall, 
    106 Wash. 2d 54
    , 
    720 P.2d 808
    (1986) to determine whether article I, section 7 provides broader
    protection than the Fourth Amendment under the specific facts of this case.
    4
    State v. Olsen
    No. 93315-4
    grounds, without examining the question under either constitution. See, e.g., State
    v. Acevedo, 159 Wn. App. 221,234,248 P.3d 526 (2010); State v. Vant, 145 Wn.
    App. 592, 603-04, 
    186 P.3d 1149
    (2008).
    We have not, however, directly addressed the issue under our state
    constitutional provision. Two inquiries are implicit in an article I, section 7 claim:
    (1) whether the contested state action "disturbed" a person's "private affair[s]"
    and, if so, (2) whether the action was undertaken with "authority of law." State v.
    Reeder, 
    184 Wash. 2d 805
    , 814, 
    365 P.3d 1243
    (2015). "Part of this inquiry focuses
    on what kind of protection has been historically afforded to the interest asserted,
    and part of it focuses on the nature and extent of the information that may be
    obtained as a result of government conduct." 
    Id. (citing State
    v. Miles, 
    160 Wash. 2d 236
    , 244, 
    156 P.3d 864
    (2007)).
    A. UAs Implicate a DUI Probationer's Privacy Interests
    We first look to whether UAs disturb DUI probationers' "private affairs."
    More specifically, we consider whether providing a urine sample is among '"those
    privacy interests which citizens of this state have held, and should be entitled to
    hold, safe from governmental trespass."' 
    Id. (quoting In
    re Pers. Restraint of
    Maxfield, 
    133 Wash. 2d 332
    , 339, 
    945 P.2d 196
    (1997)).
    5
    State v. Olsen
    No. 93315-4
    We have consistently held that the nonconsensual removal of bodily fluids
    implicates privacy interests. 
    York, 163 Wash. 2d at 307
    ; 
    Juveniles, 121 Wash. 2d at 90
    ;
    
    Olivas, 122 Wash. 2d at 83
    ; State v. Curran, 
    116 Wash. 2d 174
    , 184, 
    804 P.2d 558
    (1991), abrogated on other grounds by State v. Berlin, 
    133 Wash. 2d 541
    , 
    947 P.2d 700
    (1997). UAs implicate privacy interests in two ways. First, the act of
    providing a urine sample is fundamentally intrusive. This is particularly true
    where urine samples are collected under observation to ensure compliance. 2 See
    
    York, 163 Wash. 2d at 308
    ("Even if done in an enclosed stall, this is a significant
    intn1sion on a student's fundamental right of privacy."). Second, "chemical
    analysis of urine, like that of blood, can reveal a host of private medical facts about
    [a person], including whether he or she is epileptic, pregnant, or diabetic." Skinner
    v. Ry. Labor Executives' Ass'n, 
    489 U.S. 602
    ,617,
    109 S. Ct. 1402
    , 
    103 L. Ed. 2d 639
    (1989). These privacy interests are precisely what article I, section 7 is meant
    2
    The record does not contain details of the procedure used in this case, but direct observation of
    urination is a common requirement for UAs conducted in the criminal justice system. See, e.g.,
    U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE OFFICE OF JUSTICE PROGRAMS, BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE,
    AMERICAN PROBATION AND PAROLE ASSOCIATION'S DRUG TESTING GUIDELINES FOR PRACTICES
    FOR ADULT PROBATION AND PAROLE AGENCIES 42-43 (1991) (providing for "direct observation of
    the collection process"), https:// https://www.appa-net.org/eweb/docs/appa/pubs/DTGPAPP A.pdf
    [https://perma.cc/Y33J-BYY7]; KING COUNTY DRUG DIVERSION COURT, PARTICIPANT
    HANDBOOK 8 (2015) ("The observed collection and scientific testing of your urine for drngs,
    alcohol, and other mood-altering substances is an important part of [drng diversion court]."),
    http://www.kingcounty.gov/-/media/ courts/Clerk/drngCourt/documents/K.CD DC_Participant_H
    andbook.ashx?la=en [https://perma.cc/UT69-GJXA].
    6
    State v. Olsen
    No.93315-4
    to protect. See State v. Jorden, 
    160 Wash. 2d 121
    , 126, 
    156 P.3d 893
    (2007) ("[A]
    central consideration [under article I, section 7] is ... whether the information
    obtained via the governmental trespass reveals intimate or discrete details of a
    person's life.").
    However, probationers do not enjoy constitutional privacy protection to the
    same degree as other citizens. Probationers have a reduced expectation of privacy
    because they are "persons whom a court has sentenced to confinement but who are
    serving their time outside the prison walls." State v. Jardinez, 
    184 Wash. App. 518
    ,
    523, 
    338 P.3d 292
    (2014); see also State v. Simms, 
    10 Wash. App. 75
    , 82, 
    516 P.2d 1088
    (1973) (parolees and probationers still "in custodia legis" until expiration of
    maximum term of sentence). Therefore, the State may supervise and scrutinize a
    probationer more closely than it may other citizens. State v. Lucas, 
    56 Wash. App. 236
    ,240, 
    783 P.2d 121
    (1989); State v. Parris, 
    163 Wash. App. 110
    , 117,259 P.3d
    331 (2011 ). However, "this diminished expectation of privacy is constitutionally
    permissible only to the extent 'necessitated by the legitimate demands of the
    operation of the parole process."' 
    Parris, 163 Wash. App. at 11
    7 (internal quotation
    marks omitted) (quoting 
    Simms, 10 Wash. App. at 86
    ).
    Nevertheless, relying on State v. Surge, 
    160 Wash. 2d 65
    , 
    156 P.3d 208
    (2007)
    (plurality opinion), the State argues that UAs do not implicate Olsen's privacy
    7
    State v. Olsen
    No. 93315-4
    interests because probationers lack any privacy interest in their urine. We
    disagree. Even though misdemeanant probationers have a reduced expectation of
    privacy, this does not mean that they have no privacy rights at all in their bodily
    fluids.
    In Surge, we considered the constitutionality of a statute that authorized the
    collection of convicted felons' DNA for identification purposes. 
    Id. at 69.
    A
    plurality held that the statute is constitutional, reasoning that incarcerated felons
    lack a privacy interest in their identities due to their status. But Surge is
    distinguishable from this case. First, it involved incarcerated felons, not
    misdemeanant probationers. 
    Id. at 72.
    Further, the lead opinion in Surge
    emphasized that the DNA test was only for identification purposes. 
    Id. at 79
    ("the
    statute does not unconstitutionally authorize disturbance of an individual's bodily
    integrity by allowing the DNA results to be used for purposes other than identity").
    The UAs here gather information beyond the probationer's identity by analyzing
    urine for the presence of controlled substances. Although these tests are meant to
    enforce probation conditions, they also collect evidence for possible revocation
    hearings, implicating the probationer's liberty interests. See Simms, IO Wn. App.
    at 83-84 (probationers have an interest in their continued liberty). Surge does not
    8
    State v. Olsen
    No. 93315-4
    support the State's argument that DUI probationers lack any privacy interest
    whatsoever in their urine.
    In sum, even though probationers do not enjoy the same expectation of
    privacy as other citizens, the UAs here still implicate their reduced privacy
    interests under article I, section 7.
    B. Random UAs ofDUI Probationers Do Not Violate Article I, Section 7
    Because They Are Conducted with Authority of Law
    Next, we turn to the second step of our inquiry under article I, section 7:
    whether the invasion is performed with authority of law. The government has a
    compelling interest in disturbing Olsen's privacy interest in order to promote her
    rehabilitation and protect the public. The random testing here is narrowly tailored
    to monitor compliance with a validly imposed probation condition. Thus, the
    judgment and sentence constitutes sufficient "authority of law" to require random
    UAs here.
    Typically, under article I, section 7, an intrusion into an individual's private
    affairs is conducted with authority of law when it is supported by a warrant or a
    recognized exception to the warrant requirement. 
    York, 163 Wash. 2d at 310
    . But
    because probationers have a reduced expectation of privacy, the State does not
    need a warrant, an applicable warrant exception, or even probable cause to search a
    probationer. See 
    Lucas, 56 Wash. App. at 243-44
    . However, as discussed above,
    9
    State v. Olsen
    No. 93315-4
    probationers do not forfeit their rights entirely and thus some authority of law must
    still justify the intrusion into their reduced expectation of privacy. See 
    Parris, 163 Wash. App. at 11
    7.
    We have examined what constitutes "authority of law" to drug test "ordinary
    citizens," striking down suspicionless drug testing of students and other members
    of the public. For example, in York, a plurality of this court held that no authority
    of law justified drug testing of student 
    athletes. 163 Wash. 2d at 315
    . We noted that
    student athletes' privacy interests differ from those of convicted offenders, as
    students have "merely attended school and chosen to play extracurricular sports."
    Id.; see also Kuehn v. Renton Sch. Dist. No. 403, 103 Wn.2d 594,602,694 P.2d
    1078 (1985) (plurality opinion) (school officials violated article I, section 7 when
    they mandated across the board search of luggage as a condition of participating in
    band concert tour). The lead opinion also declined to adopt a doctrine akin to the
    federal "special needs" exception in the context of randomly drug testing student
    athletes. 
    York, 163 Wash. 2d at 316
    ; see also Griffin v. Wisconsin, 
    483 U.S. 868
    , 873,
    
    107 S. Ct. 3164
    , 
    97 L. Ed. 2d 709
    (1987) (defining the federal "special needs"
    exception).
    But DUI probationers are distinguishable from student athletes. Olsen was
    convicted of a crime and is still in the State's legal custody. Simms, 
    10 Wash. App. 10
    State v. Olsen
    No. 93315-4
    at 82. She has a duty to engage in her rehabilitation in exchange for the privilege
    of being relieved from jail time and "should expect close scrutiny" of her conduct.
    
    Lucas, 56 Wash. App. at 241
    ; see also City of Spokane v. Marquette, 
    146 Wash. 2d 124
    ,
    132, 
    43 P.3d 502
    (2002). Her privacy interests are more constrained than those of
    a student athlete or a performer.
    Justices of this court have suggested a balancing test may be appropriate to
    evaluate whether there is "authority of law" in these circumstances. In Surge,
    Justice Fairhurst suggested a compelling interests test, stating that "[ o]utside the
    law enforcement context, this court applies a two-part, narrowly tailored
    compelling state interest test to determine whether state intrusions of autonomous
    decision making privacy interests were conducted under authority 
    oflaw." 160 Wash. 2d at 91
    (Fairhurst, J., concurring in the dissent); see also 
    Juveniles, 121 Wash. 2d at 97-98
    ; State v. Farmer, 
    116 Wash. 2d 414
    , 430-31, 
    805 P.2d 200
    (1991);
    
    Robinson, 102 Wash. App. at 816-18
    . In York, Justice J.M. Johnson suggested a
    similar test, noting that "a constitutional program of random suspicionless drug
    testing of student athletes should advance compelling interests, show narrow
    tailoring, and employ a less intrusive method of 
    testing." 163 Wash. 2d at 342
    (J.M.
    Johnson, J., concurring).
    11
    State v. Olsen
    No. 93315-4
    We find these considerations useful here, in light of probationers'
    significantly reduced expectation of privacy and the unique nature and
    rehabilitative goals of the probation system. We therefore examine whether a
    compelling interest, achieved through narrowly tailored means, supports the
    intrusion into a DUI probationer's reduced privacy interests.
    1.        The State Has a Strong Interest in Supervising DUI Probationers in
    Order To Promote Rehabilitation and Protect the Public
    Probation is "simply one point (or, more accurately, one set of points) on a
    continuum of possible punishments." 
    Griffin, 483 U.S. at 874
    . It is not a right, but
    "an act of judicial grace or lenience motivated in part by the hope that the offender
    will become rehabilitated." Gillespie v. State, 
    17 Wash. App. 363
    , 366-67, 
    563 P.2d 1272
    (1977) (citing State ex rel. Woodhouse v. Dore, 69 Wn.2d 64,416 P.2d 670
    (1966)). A sentencing court has great discretion to impose conditions and
    restrictions of probation to "assure that the probation serves as a period of genuine
    rehabilitation and that the community is not harmed by the probationer's being at
    large." 
    Griffin, 483 U.S. at 875
    ; see also State v. Summers, 
    60 Wash. 2d 702
    , 707,
    
    375 P.2d 143
    (1962).
    As such, the State has a compelling interest in closely monitoring
    probationers in order to promote their rehabilitation. 
    Parris, 163 Wash. App. at 11
    7.
    As probation officers' role is "rehabilitative rather than punitive in nature," they
    12
    State v. Olsen
    No. 93315-4
    must, then, have tools at their disposal in order to accurately assess whether
    rehabilitation is taking place. State v. Reichert, 
    158 Wash. App. 374
    , 387, 
    242 P.3d 44
    (2010); see also 
    Simms, 10 Wash. App. at 85
    (probation officers' duties differ
    from police officers "'ferreting out crime"' (quoting Johnson v. United States, 
    333 U.S. 10
    , 14, 
    68 S. Ct. 367
    , 
    92 L. Ed. 436
    (1948))).
    The State has a duty not just to promote and assess the rehabilitation of a
    probationer, but also to protect the public. State v. Kuhn, 
    7 Wash. App. 190
    , 194,
    
    499 P.2d 49
    (1972) ("[i]n granting or denying probation, the judge makes the
    delicate balance of protecting the rights of the public and providing for the
    rehabilitation of the offender"). The public safety risk here is substantial: fatalities
    in crashes involving alcohol-impaired drivers continue to represent almost one-
    third (31 percent) of the total motor vehicle fatalities in the United States. In
    Washington, the proportion is even higher than the national average: impaired
    driving is one of the leading contributors to highway deaths and major injuries. 3
    Offender treatment and monitoring, however, are effective countermeasures to
    prevent driving fatalities and reduce recidivism. See generally U.S. DEP'T OF
    3
    See WASH. STATE DEP'T OF TRANSP., WASHINGTON STATE STRATEGIC HIGHWAY SAFETY PLAN
    6 (2013), https://www.wsdot.wa.gov/NR/rdonlyres/5FC5452D-8217-4F20-B2A9-
    080593625C99/0/TargetZeroPlan.pdf [https://perma.cc/V2HW-XA4M]; MOTHERS AGAINST
    DRUNK DRIVING, 2013 Drunk Driving Fatalities by State (drunk driving cause of 34 percent of
    traffic deaths in Washington in 2013), http://www.madd.org/blog/2014/december/2013-drunk-
    driving-fatalities.html [https://perma.cc/KTF4-L75B] (last visited July 27, 2017).
    13
    State v. Olsen
    No. 93315-4
    TRANSP., NAT'L HIGHWAY TRAFFIC SAFETY ADMIN., COUNTERMEASURES THAT
    WORK: A HIGHWAY SAFETY COUNTERMEASURE GUIDE FOR STATE HIGHWAY
    SAFETY OFFICES 1-4 (8th ed. 2015) (COUNTERMEASURES), https://www.nhtsa.gov/
    sites/nhtsa. dot. gov/files/812202-countermeasuresthatworkSth. pdf [https ://perma.
    cc/N4UC-6K8E].
    Thus, the State has a compelling interest here in supervising a probationer in
    order to assess his or her progress toward rehabilitation and compliance with
    probation conditions. In the case of DUI probationers, monitoring and supervision
    ensure that treatment is taking place and serve to protect the public in the case that
    a probationer fails to comply with court-imposed conditions.
    2.        Random UAs Are Narrowly Tailored To Monitor Compliance with
    Another Probation Condition
    Next, we examine whether random UAs are a narrowly tailored means of
    effectuating the State's goals. We find that here, random UAs are narrowly
    tailored: they are a crucial monitoring tool that is limited in scope when imposed
    only to assess compliance with a valid prohibition on drug and alcohol use.
    a. Random UAs Are an Effective Monitoring Tool
    We have approved of monitoring tools used to enforce a valid parole or
    probation conditions. State v. Riles, 
    135 Wash. 2d 326
    , 339, 342, 
    957 P.2d 655
    (1998) (discussing polygraph testing and UAs ), abrogated on other grounds by
    14
    State v. Olsen
    No. 93315-4
    State v. Valencia, 169 Wn.2d 782,239 P.3d 1059 (2010); see also State v.
    Combs, 
    102 Wash. App. 949
    , 952, 
    10 P.3d 1101
    (2000) (concluding that polygraph
    testing may be ordered to monitor offender's compliance with other conditions).
    As the Court of Appeals discussed in detail, the trial court permissibly conditioned
    Olsen's release on her agreement to refrain from drug and alcohol use. See RCW
    3.66.067; RCW 46.61.5055; State v. Williams, 
    97 Wash. App. 257
    , 262-63, 
    983 P.2d 687
    (1999). It follows that the trial court also has authority to monitor compliance
    with that condition through narrowly tailored means.
    Random UAs are a permissible means here. UAs are an important
    monitoring tool utilized by courts during the rehabilitative process of probation.
    See, e.g., 
    Williams, 97 Wash. App. at 260
    (authorizing requirement that probationer
    submit to a breath test, blood test, or UA upon probation officer's request); KING
    COUNTYDRUGDNERSIONCOURT,PARTICIPANTHANDBOOK 5-7 (2015) (drug court
    participants required to participate in random, observed UAs)
    http://www.kingcounty.gov/-/media/courts/Clerk/drug Court/documents/KCDDC _
    Participant_Handbook.ashx?la=en [https ://perma.cc/UT69-GJXA]. Unannounced
    testing is, arguably, crucial if a court is to impose drug testing at all. 4 Random
    4 See U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE OFFICE OF JUSTICE PROGRAMS, DRUG COURT PROGRAM OFFICE,
    DRUG TESTING IN A DRUG COURT ENVIRONMENT: COMMON ISSUES TO ADDRESS (2000) (DRUG
    TESTING) (stating that the effective operation of a drug court program is premised on having the
    15
    State v. Olsen
    No. 93315-4
    testing seeks to deter the probationer from consuming drugs or alcohol by putting
    her on notice that drug use can be discovered at any time. It also promotes
    rehabilitation and accountability by providing the probation officer with a
    "practical mechanism to determine whether rehabilitation is indeed taking place."
    Macias v. State, 
    649 S.W.2d 150
    , 152 (Tex. Crim. App. 1983) (weekly UAs).
    Amicus curiae American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) argues that random
    UAs are unnecessary. As an alternative, it suggests that UAs should be permitted
    only if a probation officer has a well-founded suspicion of a probation violation. It
    points out that probation officers could detect alcohol or drug use by receiving a tip
    or "tak[ing] note of drug paraphernalia or alcohol while visiting the probationer."
    Br. of Amicus Curiae ACLU at 18. But such a standard would be impracticable
    here. Drug or alcohol impairment can be difficult to detect by observation. See,
    e.g., 
    Skinner, 489 U.S. at 628-29
    . Additionally, as noted by the National Drug
    Court Institute, "it is crucial that samples be collected in a random, unannounced
    capacity to conduct frequent and random drng tests of participants, obtain test results
    immediately, and maintain a high degree of accuracy in test results),
    https ://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles 1/ojp/181103.pdf [https ://perma. cc/J7N9-C66P];
    
    COUNTERMEASURES, supra, at 1-43
    (driving while intoxicated offender monitoring, including
    randomized drng testing proven to reduce recidivism); AM. Soc'Y OF ADDICTION MED., DRUG
    TESTING: A WHITE PAPER OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF ADDICTION MEDICINE 40 (2013)
    (random testing preferred over scheduled testing), https://www.asam.org/docs/default-
    source/public-po1icy-statements/drng-testing-a-white-paper-by-asam.pdf?sfvrsn=l25866c2_4
    [https://perma.cc/C2PB-Q66DJ.
    16
    State v. Olsen
    No. 93315-4
    manner," as random testing prevents individuals from planning ahead and avoiding
    detection. 5 Requiring reasonable suspicion as a basis to test could make it
    prohibitively difficult for the probation officer to carry out his or her
    responsibilities of supervising the probationer and accurately assessing progress
    toward rehabilitation. See State v. Zeta Chi Fraternity, 
    142 N.H. 16
    , 28, 
    696 A.2d 530
    (1997) (citing State v. Berrocales, 
    141 N.H. 262
    , 
    681 A.2d 95
    (1996)).
    b. The Judgment and Sentence Limits the Scope of the Random UAs
    To Monitor Compliance with a Valid Probation Condition
    Amicus curiae also argues that allowing random UAs of DUI probationers
    would open the door to permitting random, suspicionless searches of all
    probationers. We disagree: random UAs are distinguishable from other, more
    broad-sweeping probation conditions. The judgment and sentence here limits the
    scope of the testing to monitor compliance with a valid restriction on drug and
    alcohol use.
    It is true that there are a host of cases in which lower courts analyzed other
    parole and probation conditions and found that in those contexts, reasonable
    suspicion is required to search the offender's home, vehicle, or electronic devices.
    5
    NAT'L DRUG COURT INST., THE DRUG COURT JUDICIAL BENCHBOOK 121,
    https ://www.ndci.org/wp-content/uploads/14146_NDCI_Benchbook_v6. pdf
    [https://perma.cc/36L3-XHMR]; see also DRUG 
    TESTING, supra, at 10
    .
    17
    State v. Olsen
    No. 93315-4
    See 
    Jardinez, 184 Wash. App. at 523-24
    (search of parolee's iPod); Parris, 163 Wn.
    App. at 117 (search of memory cards found in parolee's room); State v. Massey, 
    81 Wash. App. 198
    , 199, 
    913 P.2d 424
    (1996) (parolee ordered to '"submit to testing
    and searches of [his] person, residence and vehicle"' (alteration in original));
    
    Lucas, 56 Wash. App. at 240
    (search of probationer's home); State v. Lampman, 45
    Wn. App. 228,233, 
    724 P.2d 1092
    (1986) (search of probationer's purse); State v.
    Keller, 
    35 Wash. App. 455
    , 457, 
    667 P.2d 139
    (1983) (search of residence pursuant
    to condition that "'[d]efendant shall submit to a search of residence, person and
    vehicle upon request'"); State v. Coahran, 
    27 Wash. App. 664
    , 666-67, 
    620 P.2d 116
    (1980) (search of parolee's truck). Courts require reasonable suspicion for such
    searches in part because these intrusions run the risk of exposing a large amount of
    private information.
    As discussed above, UAs can also potentially reveal a variety of private facts
    about a person. 
    Skinner, 489 U.S. at 617
    . However, the judgment and sentence
    here explicitly authorizes random UAs only to "ensure compliance with conditions
    regarding the consumption of alcohol and controlled substances." CP at 5;
    
    Williams, 97 Wash. App. at 263-64
    . While the record does not contain information
    about the specific procedure used to conduct the UAs, we apply a commonsense
    reading to the judgment and sentence and find that it authorizes urinalysis only to
    18
    State v. Olsen
    No. 93315-4
    test for drugs and alcohol. See State v. Figeroa Martines, 
    184 Wash. 2d 83
    , 93, 
    355 P.3d 1111
    (2015) (applying a commonsense reading to warrant and concluding it
    authorized tests performed to detect the presence of drugs or alcohol). It impliedly
    limits the scope of the testing to monitor only Olsen's compliance with an
    underlying probation condition. See 
    Combs, 102 Wash. App. at 953
    (scope of
    community placement order impliedly limits scope of polygraph testing).
    Olsen was convicted of DUI, a crime involving the abuse of drugs and
    alcohol. A probationer convicted of DUI can expect to be monitored for
    consumption of drugs and alcohol, but should not necessarily expect broader-
    ranging intrusions that expose large amounts of private information completely
    unrelated to the underlying offense. For example, a probation condition
    authorizing suspicionless searches of Olsen's home might turn up evidence of drug
    and alcohol use, but would almost certainly reveal other, unrelated information
    about her private affairs. See State v. Winterstein, 
    167 Wash. 2d 620
    , 630, 220 P .3d
    1226 (2009). But random UAs, if limited to monitoring for the presence of
    alcohol, marijuana, or nonprescribed drugs, reveal a comparatively limited amount
    of private information. Unlike a search of a home, the information potentially
    revealed is directly linked to the "class of criminal behavior" that Olsen engaged
    in. 
    Juveniles, 121 Wash. 2d at 92-93
    . Random UAs also run a smaller risk of
    19
    State v. Olsen
    No. 93315-4
    inadvertently exposing other private information unrelated to the underlying
    prohibition on drug and alcohol use.
    We also reiterate that DUI probationers have been sentenced to confinement
    but are "serving their time outside the prison walls." 
    Jardinez, 184 Wash. App. at 523
    . Keeping that in mind, UAs have the same privacy implications whether an
    individual is serving her time in prison or on probation. A search of a
    probationer's home, by comparison, has much wider-ranging privacy implications
    than a search of a prisoner's cell. For example, a search of a residence implicates
    not just the probationer's privacy, but potentially the privacy of third parties. In
    Winterstein, we noted that third party privacy interests must be considered when
    probation officers seek to search a probationer's residence, and held that probation
    officers are required to have probable cause to believe that their probationers live
    at the residence they seek to 
    search. 167 Wash. 2d at 630
    . But such considerations
    are inapplicable in this context.
    Accordingly, we hold that random UAs, under certain circumstances, are a
    constitutionally permissible form of close scrutiny of DUI probationers. We find
    that the testing here is a narrowly tailored monitoring tool imposed pursuant to a
    valid prohibition on drug and alcohol use. Random UAs are also directly related to
    a probationer's rehabilitation and supervision.
    20
    State v. Olsen
    No. 93315-4
    However, we clarify that our decision today does not mean that probationers
    have no protection. Random UAs could potentially lack "authority of law" absent
    a sufficient connection to a validly imposed probation condition or if the testing is
    conducted in an unreasonable manner. We also reaffirm that general, exploratory
    searches are not permissible under article I, section 7. See Kuehn, l 03 Wn.2d at
    601-02 (general searches are "anathema to Fourth Amendment and Const. art. 1,
    § 7 protections"). As such, while we find that random UAs may be permissible in
    order to monitor compliance with valid probation conditions, they may not be used
    impermissibly as part of "a fishing expedition to discover evidence of other crimes,
    past or present." 
    Combs, 102 Wash. App. at 953
    .
    CONCLUSION
    While random UAs of DUI probationers do implicate privacy interests, the
    UAs here are narrowly tailored and imposed to monitor compliance with a valid
    probation condition. The judgment and sentence impliedly limits the scope of
    testing to monitor only for alcohol and controlled substances. Taking into
    consideration Olsen's reduced privacy interests as a probationer, we conclude that
    the random UAs here were conducted with "authority of law" under article I,
    section 7 of our state constitution. We affirm the Court of Appeals.
    21
    State v. Olsen
    No. 93315-4
    WE CONCUR:
    22
    State v. Olsen, No. 93315-4
    (Fairhurst, C.J., dissenting)
    No. 93315-4
    FAIRHURST, C.J. ( dissenting)-When the State collects and analyzes a
    probationer's urine, it disturbs that probationer's private affairs.       For decades,
    Washington courts have held that similar intrusions bear the authority of law only
    when supported by a reasonable suspicion that a probation condition has been
    violated.     This straightforward application of existing law should control our
    decision here. But, uncomfortable with this result, the majority declines to apply the
    law as it is and instead adopts a new test-cut from whole cloth and proposed by no
    party in this case-to achieve its desired outcome. This change in the law diminishes
    the promise of privacy enshrined in the Washington Constitution and confuses the
    standard we use to evaluate probationary searches. For these reasons, I dissent.
    I agree with the majority that although probationers have a reduced privacy
    interest, a urinalysis test nevertheless implicates their privacy under article I, section
    7 of the Washington Constitution. The remaining issue is whether this intrusion is
    1
    State v. Olsen, No. 93315-4
    (Fairhurst, C.J., dissenting)
    conducted with the authority of law. See Yorkv. Wahkiakum Sch. Dist. No. 200, 
    163 Wash. 2d 297
    , 306, 
    178 P.3d 995
    (2008) (plurality opinion).
    Typically, a search is conducted with the authority oflaw when it is supported
    by a warrant or a recognized exception to the warrant requirement. 
    Id. at 310.
    But
    I agree with the majority that because probationers have a reduced expectation of
    privacy, the State does not need a warrant, an applicable warrant exception, or even
    probable cause to search a probationer. See State v. Lucas, 
    56 Wash. App. 236
    , 243-
    44, 
    783 P.2d 121
    (1989). Still, the State may not engage in suspicionless searches
    of probationers. Id.; see also 
    York, 163 Wash. 2d at 314
    ("[W]e have a long history of
    striking down exploratory searches not based on at least reasonable suspicion.");
    State v. Jorden, 
    160 Wash. 2d 121
    , 127, 
    156 P.3d 893
    (2007) ("[T]his court has
    consistently expressed displeasure with random and suspicionless searches,
    reasoning that they amount to nothing more than an impermissible fishing
    expedition.").     Instead, "[a] warrantless search of [a] parolee or probationer is
    reasonable if an officer has well-founded suspicion that a violation has occurred."
    State v. Parris, 
    163 Wash. App. 110
    ,119,259 P.3d 331 (2011).
    Indeed, every case addressing the issue has held that a warrantless search of a
    probationer's person, residence, or effects must be based on a reasonable suspicion
    that a probation violation has occurred. State v. Jardinez, 
    184 Wash. App. 518
    , 523-
    24, 
    338 P.3d 292
    (2014); 
    Parris, 163 Wash. App. at 11
    7; 
    Lucas, 56 Wash. App. at 240
    ;
    2
    State v. Olsen, No. 93315-4
    (Fairhurst, C.J., dissenting)
    State v. Lampman, 45 Wn. App. 228,233, 
    724 P.2d 1092
    (1986); State v. Keller, 
    35 Wash. App. 455
    , 459-60, 
    667 P.2d 139
    (1983); State v. Coahran, 
    27 Wash. App. 664
    ,
    666-67, 
    620 P.2d 116
    (1980); State v. Simms, 
    10 Wash. App. 75
    , 85-86, 
    516 P.2d 1088
    (1973). In State v. Massey, 
    81 Wash. App. 198
    , 200-01, 
    913 P.2d 424
    (1996), the
    Court of Appeals held that searches pursuant to a probation condition identical to
    the one at issue here must be supported by reasonable suspicion. 1 I would hold that
    probationary urinalysis tests are subject to the same requirement.
    Reasonable suspicion is not an onerous burden. In this context, reasonable
    suspicion is something less than probable cause and analogous to the requirements
    of a Terry 2 stop-articulable facts and rational inferences suggesting a substantial
    possibility that a probation violation has occurred. 
    Parris, 163 Wash. App. at 11
    9.
    This minimal restraint on the State is intended to prevent arbitrary and capricious
    searches. See 
    Simms, 10 Wash. App. at 84
    ("Considering the interest of the parolee in
    his liberty and privacy, it would seem to be beyond question that to subject the
    1
    The Court of Appeals upheld the condition, explaining that although the language
    contained no "reasonable suspicion" requirement, the issue of the constitutionality of the condition
    was not ripe for review because the probationer had yet to be searched. 
    Massey, 81 Wash. App. at 200
    . The court speculated that reasonable suspicion language might not be required in the
    probation condition, as courts have upheld other conditions without such language. 
    Id. at 201
    (citing 
    Lucas, 56 Wash. App. at 237-38
    ). Nevertheless, the court noted that "regardless of whether
    the sentencing court includes such language in its order, the standard for adjudicating a challenge
    to any subsequent search remains the same: Searches must be based on reasonable suspicion." 
    Id. 2 Terry
    v. Ohio, 
    392 U.S. 1
    , 9, 
    88 S. Ct. 1868
    , 
    20 L. Ed. 2d 889
    (1968).
    3
    State v. Olsen, No. 93315-4
    (Fairhurst, C.J., dissenting)
    parolee to arbitrary and capricious searches at the whim of his parole officer would
    be constitutionally impermissible.").
    But the majority removes this minimal restraint, concluding that suspicionless
    urinalysis tests are constitutionally permissible because they are narrowly tailored to
    a compelling state interest. Majority at 20-21. Before today, this test was not the
    law; it has been "Frankensteined" from parts scattered across concurrences that, at
    the time, could not garner majority support from this court. 3 This new test brings
    our jurisprudence closer to federal Fourth Amendment analysis and opens the door
    to substantial confusion in the probationary context and beyond.
    Federal courts permit warrantless searches under the Fourth Amendment to
    the United States Constitution when the government can show a special need beyond
    the normal needs for law enforcement that makes the probable cause requirement
    impracticable. Skinner v. Ry. Labor Execs.' Ass 'n, 
    489 U.S. 602
    , 619, 
    109 S. Ct. 1402
    , 
    103 L. Ed. 2d 639
    (1989). The Supreme Court has applied this doctrine to
    justify warrantless probationary searches. Griffin v. Wisconsin, 
    483 U.S. 868
    , 873,
    3
    The majority also cites State v. Farmer, 
    116 Wash. 2d 414
    , 
    805 P.2d 200
    (1991). There, we
    suggested that a "fundamental liberty interest may be justifiably limited by a narrowly drawn,
    compelling state interest." 
    Id. at 429.
    But we recognized this theory was limited to only four
    unique circumstances not relevant here, and we ultimately declined to apply such a test in that
    case, which involved nonconsensual HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) testing. 
    Id. at 431
    (nonconsensual HIV testing unconstitutional as applied to the defendant). Since Farmer, we have
    further declined to apply this test despite numerous opportunities to do so. Until today, it appears
    no Washington court has relied on Farmer to justify an invasion of privacy under article I, section
    7.
    4
    State v. Olsen, No. 93315-4
    (Fairhurst, C.J., dissenting)
    
    107 S. Ct. 3164
    , 
    97 L. Ed. 2d 709
    (1987). Although we have thus far declined to
    adopt a special needs exception to the warrant requirement under article I, section 7,
    majority at 10, today the majority muddies the waters by adopting its functional
    equivalent.
    Despite using slightly different language, the majority's new test bears all the
    indicia of the federal special needs exception under the Fourth Amendment. Like
    the majority's test, the special needs exception requires a compelling state interest.
    See, e.g., Nat'! Treasury Emps. Union v. Von Raab, 
    489 U.S. 656
    , 675 n.3, 109 S.
    Ct. 1384, 
    103 L. Ed. 2d 685
    (1989) ("It is sufficient that the Government have a
    compelling interest in preventing an otherwise pervasive societal problem.").
    Further, the state must demonstrate that the warrant or probable cause requirement
    would be impracticable given the nature of the compelling interest at stake. 
    Griffin, 483 U.S. at 873
    .          The majority echoes this reasoning as well, noting that
    demonstrating reasonable suspicion "could make it prohibitively difficult for the
    probation officer to carry out his or her responsibilities." Majority at 16-17.
    Typically, special needs searches must also be narrowly tailored in the sense
    that the intrusion is minimal. See, e.g., 
    Skinner, 489 U.S. at 624-25
    ; see also Knox
    County Educ. Ass 'n v. Knox County Ed. ofEduc., 158 F.3d 361,384 (6th Cir. 1998)
    (noting the state's interest in a drug testing regime for teachers outweighed the
    teachers' privacy interests because it "is circumscribed, narrowly-tailored, and not
    5
    State v. Olsen, No. 93315-4
    (Fairhurst, C.J., dissenting)
    overly intn1sive, either m its monitoring procedures or m its disclosure
    requirements").       Indeed, many federal courts recharacterize the special needs
    doctrine into nearly the same formulation that the majority adopts here. See 
    Skinner, 489 U.S. at 624
    ("[W]here the privacy interests implicated by the search are minimal,
    and where an important governmental interest furthered by the intrusion would be
    placed in jeopardy by a requirement of individualized suspicion, a search may be
    reasonable despite the absence of such suspicion."); see also United States v.
    Stewart, 468 F. Supp. 2d 261,268 (D. Mass. 2007) ("[T]he 'special needs' exception
    requires a governmental purpose narrowly tailored to the means used to effectuate
    that purpose." (citing 
    Skinner, 489 U.S. at 629-30
    )), rev 'don other grounds, 
    532 F.3d 32
    (1st Cir. 2008); Green v. Berge, 
    354 F.3d 675
    , 679 (7th Cir. 2004)
    ("Wisconsin's DNA [( deoxyribonucleic acid)] collection statute is, we think,
    narrowly drawn, and it serves an important state interest. ... The Wisconsin law
    withstands constitutional attack under the firmly entrenched 'special needs'
    doctrine."); compare 
    Skinner, 489 U.S. at 619
    (describing special needs analysis as
    "balanc[ing] the governmental and privacy interests to assess the practicality of the
    warrant and probable-cause requirements"), with majority at 11 (stating a "balancing
    test may be appropriate" to determine whether the state interest justifies the intrusion
    here). In York, this court equated the special needs doctrine to the strict scrutiny
    analysis the majority now adopts, emphasizing that no such doctrine exists under
    6
    State v. Olsen, No. 93315-4
    (Fairhurst, C.J., dissenting)
    article I, section 7. See 
    York, 163 Wash. 2d at 314
    ("[W]e have not created a general
    special needs exception or adopted a strict scrutiny type analysis that would allow
    the State to depart from the warrant requirement whenever it could articulate a
    special need beyond the normal need for law enforcement." (emphasis added)).
    Despite any minute differences, the parallels are too substantial and too
    significant to deny. Apart from the magic words, the majority's strict scrutiny test
    is nearly indistinguishable from the federal special needs doctrine. This expansion
    of article I, section 7 jurisprudence could have a substantial effect on how we
    evaluate searches in the probationary context and beyond. Indeed, it is difficult to
    imagine a warrantless government intrusion that would satisfy the special needs
    doctrine but not the strict scrutiny test the court adopts today.
    Of course, looking to the federal courts for guidance is not necessarily unusual
    or improper. When appropriate, we occasionally consider federal constitutional
    analysis when reviewing analogous provisions in the Washington Constitution. See,
    e.g., State v. Lee, 135 Wn.2d 369,387,957 P.2d 741 (1998) (Absent a demonstration
    that the Washington Constitution provides broader protection, we will interpret it
    "coextensively with its parallel federal counterpart.").
    7
    State v. Olsen, No. 93315-4
    (Fairhurst, C.J., dissenting)
    But the majority has co-opted the special needs doctrine surreptitiously.
    Rather than expressly adopt such a doctrine, which we have contemplated before, 4
    the majority instead commandeers the doctrine's reasoning wholesale and takes
    great care to avoid any implication that a special needs doctrine now exists under
    article I, section 7. This is confusing at best-is there a special needs doctrine or
    not?-and disingenuous at worst. In 
    York, 163 Wash. 2d at 314
    , we said that no such
    doctrine existed in Washington, but that no longer appears to be true.
    One reason the majority might be hesitant to formally adopt a special needs
    doctrine is because it takes us closer to Fourth Amendment jurisprudence despite
    our repeated affirmations that article I, section 7 provides broader protection than its
    federal counterpart. See, e.g., State v. Ladson, 
    138 Wash. 2d 343
    , 348-49, 
    979 P.2d 833
    (1999). The majority's decision to emulate federal courts is especially peculiar
    here, given our promise to "offer heightened protection for bodily functions
    compared to the federal courts." 
    York, 163 Wash. 2d at 307
    . This difference stems
    from the text of article I, section 7, which provides that "[n]o person shall be
    disturbed in his private affairs, or his home invaded, without authority of law."
    4
    The lead opinion in York, signed by four justices, expressly declined to adopt a special
    needs exception or an equivalent strict scrutiny test under article I, section 
    7. 163 Wash. 2d at 314
    .
    However, a concurring opinion, also signed by four justices, agreed that no special needs exception
    applied in that case but left the door open to adopting such an exception under article I, section 7.
    
    Id. at 329
    ("The special needs exception is consistent with well-established common law principles
    governing warrantless searches and, thus, comports with article I, section 7." (Madsen, J.,
    concurring)).
    8
    State v. Olsen, No. 93315-4
    (Fairhurst, C .J., dissenting)
    WASH. CONST. art. I, § 7. Article I, section 7 offers an affirmative promise of
    privacy, whereas searches under the Fourth Amendment need only be reasonable.
    U.S. CONST. amend. IV; see, e.g., Brigham City v. Stuart, 
    547 U.S. 398
    , 403, 126 S.
    Ct. 1943, 
    164 L. Ed. 2d 650
    (2006) ("the ultimate touchstone of the Fourth
    Amendment is 'reasonableness"' (quotingFlzppo v. West Virginia, 
    528 U.S. 11
    , 13,
    
    120 S. Ct. 7
    , 
    145 L. Ed. 2d 16
    (1999))). The "reasonableness" standard at the heart
    of the Fourth Amendment provided the basis for the special needs doctrine in the
    first place. See 
    Skinner, 489 U.S. at 618-20
    (balancing governmental and privacy
    interests is appropriate to determine whether a search was reasonable). Therefore,
    the special needs doctrine-or the functional equivalent adopted by the majority-
    is inconsistent with article I, section 7 insofar as it is rooted in the Fourth
    Amendment's "reasonableness" standard:
    Thus, where the Fourth Amendment precludes only "unreasonable"
    searches and seizures without a warrant, article I, section 7 prohibits
    any disturbance of an individual's private affairs "without authority of
    law." 
    [York, 163 Wash. 2d at 305-06
    .] This language not only prohibits
    unreasonable searches, but also provides no quarter for ones which, in
    the context of the Fourth Amendment, would be deemed reasonable
    searches and thus constitutional.
    State v. Valdez, 167 Wn.2d 761,772,224 P.3d 751 (2009). Even though the majority
    does not claim to do so, by adopting what is essentially a special needs analysis, it
    diminishes the privacy protections enshrined in article I, section 7 and brings us
    closer to Fourth Amendment jurisprudence. Alas, there is little need to adopt the
    9
    State v. Olsen, No. 93315-4
    (Fairhurst, C.J., dissenting)
    special needs doctrine now, given the majority has already provided a more than
    adequate doppelganger.
    In dictum, the majority attempts to rein in its creation by assuring us the same
    reasoning would not apply to other probationary searches. Majority at 17. But this
    makes little sense-if a narrowly tailored search furthering a compelling government
    interest justifies the intrusion here, why would the same reasoning not justify other
    intrusions? So long as the State can meet this new standard, this court would be
    compelled to oblige under the majority's reasoning. It would be quite remarkable
    indeed if probationary urinalysis searches were such constitutional anomalies that
    this court needed to develop a legal framework so unique that it is disposed of and
    forgotten after one use.
    Nevertheless, the majority attempts to distinguish urinalysis testing from other
    probationary searches by describing it as merely a "monitoring tool" used to ensure
    compliance with probationary conditions. Majority at 14. But this non sequitur is a
    semantic trick. All probationary searches are monitoring tools in the sense that they
    are intended to ensure compliance with probationary conditions. See, e.g., 
    Lucas, 56 Wash. App. at 240
    -41 (The State has an interest in supervising probationers subject
    to probation conditions, and therefore probationers "should expect close scrutiny.");
    see also 
    Jardinez, 184 Wash. App. at 523-24
    (purpose of probationary searches is to
    determine whether probation violation occurred); see also 
    Griffin, 483 U.S. at 883
    10
    State v. Olsen, No. 93315-4
    (Fairhurst, C.J., dissenting)
    ("One important aspect of superv1s10n 1s the monitoring of a probationer's
    compliance with the conditions of his probation. In order to ensure compliance with
    those conditions, a probation agent may need to search a probationer's home to
    check for violations.").
    To support this distinction between a "monitoring tool" and other
    probationary searches, the majority cites three inapposite cases. See State v. Riles,
    
    135 Wash. 2d 326
    , 
    957 P.2d 655
    (1998), abrogated by State v. Sanchez Valencia, 169
    Wn.2d 782,239 P.3d 1059 (2010); State v. Combs, 
    102 Wash. App. 949
    , 
    10 P.3d 1101
    (2000); State v. Williams, 
    97 Wash. App. 257
    , 
    983 P.2d 687
    (1999).
    Neither Riles nor Combs involved urinalysis testing or an analogous search.
    Riles involved polygraph and plethysmograph testing as a condition of sexual
    deviancy therapy for individuals convicted of sex 
    crimes. 135 Wash. 2d at 337
    . This
    court has never suggested that polygraph or plethysmograph testing implicates
    privacy concerns in the way that urinalysis tests do. See, e.g., 
    York, 163 Wash. 2d at 307
    ; see also majority at 5-6. Further, Riles did not address the constitutionality of
    these alleged "monitoring tools" under either the Fourth Amendment or article I,
    section 7, it addressed only whether the Sentencing Reform Act of 1981, chapter
    9.94A RCW, authorized these conditions. 
    Riles, 135 Wash. 2d at 340
    . Although Riles
    briefly mentions urinalysis testing in dictum, it did not hold that urinalysis testing is
    merely a "monitoring tool" that differs from other probationary searches. Like Riles,
    11
    State v. Olsen, No. 93315-4
    (Fairhurst, C.J., dissenting)
    Combs involved polygraph testing as a probation condition for a defendant convicted
    of child 
    molestation. 102 Wash. App. at 952-53
    . It did not discuss the constitutionality
    of this condition, nor did it discuss urinalysis testing or any analogous search.
    Williams involved urinalysis testing as a probationary condition, but it did not
    address the issue here-whether random, suspicionless urinalysis tests comply with
    article I, section 7. There, a probation officer ordered Jeremiah Williams to submit
    to a urinalysis test pursuant to a probation condition, and Williams failed to comply.
    Williams, 
    97 Wash. App. 260-61
    .         After a probation hearing, the commissioner
    revoked Williams' probation and sentenced him to 180 days of confinement. 
    Id. Williams appealed,
    arguing that the alcohol and drug conditions were not authorized
    by statute and that the commissioner unlawfully delegated judicial authority to the
    probation department. 
    Id. at 262.
    He did not challenge the urinalysis test on a
    constitutional basis.
    Nor could he. The facts in Williams unambiguously demonstrate that the
    probation officer had reasonable suspicion to require a urinalysis test. Before the
    probation officer ordered the test, Williams actually admitted that he had been using
    marijuana. 
    Id. at 261.
    It was this admission that motivated the probation officer to
    order the test. 
    Id. This admission
    is more than sufficient to establish reasonable
    suspicion to conduct a probationary search. See, e.g., 
    Parris, 163 Wash. App. at 11
    9
    (discussing reasonable suspicion standard). If anything, Williams demonstrates how
    12
    State v. Olsen, No. 93315-4
    (Fairhurst, C.J., dissenting)
    probationary urinalysis tests should work. It supports the proposition that once a
    probation officer requires a probationer to submit to a search given reasonable
    suspicion that the probationer has violated a validly imposed probation condition,
    the probationer must comply. Williams in no way supports the majority's theory
    that urinalysis testing implicates only minimal privacy interests because it is merely
    a monitoring tool. Frankly, none of the authority the majority cites suggests that
    monitoring tools are subject to different analysis under article I, section 7.
    What the majority means to say (and eventually does) is that a urinalysis test
    is less invasive than other searches-such as a search of one's home, vehicle, or
    electronic devices-because those searches might reveal more sensitive information.
    Majority at 17-18. This reasoning is at least consistent with the majority's test.
    Presumably, a less invasive search is more narrowly tailored and thus more likely to
    withstand constitutional scrutiny. But the only question relevant to this analysis is
    the nature of the privacy interest intruded and the degree of the invasion. The
    contrived distinction between a monitoring tool and other probationary searches is
    irrelevant and unhelpful in addressing that question. After all, a search by any other
    name still implicates article I, section 7.
    And even accepting the majority's test, it is questionable whether random,
    suspicionless urinalysis testing is narrowly tailored enough to justify disposing of
    the reasonable suspicion requirement. The majority insists urinalysis testing is less
    13
    State v. Olsen, No. 93 315-4
    (Fairhurst, C.J., dissenting)
    invasive than other searches because it does not expose "a large amount of private
    information." Majority at 18. But this fails to recognize the full nature of the privacy
    interest at stake.     It is not merely the information obtained but the method of
    urinalysis testing that invades an individual's privacy. The majority recognizes this
    concern when it concludes that probationers have a privacy interest in their urine but
    conveniently forgets it when it determines urinalysis testing is not very invasive.
    Majority at 6, 17-18; see also 
    York, 163 Wash. 2d at 334
    ("'[i]t is difficult to imagine
    an affair more private than the passing of urine."' (alteration in original) (quoting
    Robinson v. City of Seattle, 
    102 Wash. App. 795
    , 818, 
    10 P.3d 452
    (2000))); see also
    
    Skinner, 489 U.S. at 617
    ("'There are few activities more personal or private than
    the passing of urine.'" ( quoting Von 
    Raab, 489 U.S. at 175
    )). A probation officer
    may be able to learn more about probationers' lives by searching their cars rather
    than by observing their exposed genitalia while they urinate, but that does not mean
    the latter is any less invasive.
    Further, the majority overstates the impracticality of the reasonable suspicion
    requirement.      In fact, the reasonable suspicion requirement comports with the
    majority's strict scrutiny test by providing a less drastic means for the State to
    achieve the same goals. See San Antonio Indep. Sch. Dist. v. Rodriguez, 
    411 U.S. 1
    ,
    17, 
    93 S. Ct. 1278
    , 
    36 L. Ed. 2d 16
    (1973) (State action is narrowly tailored when
    14
    State v. Olsen, No. 93315-4
    (Fairhurst, C.J., dissenting)
    "it has selected the 'less drastic means' for effectuating its objectives." (quoting
    Dunn v. Blumstein, 405 U.S. 330,343, 
    92 S. Ct. 995
    , 
    31 L. Ed. 2d 274
    (1972))).
    Reasonable suspicion is a low burden. A trained probation officer could
    observe visible signs of impairment or other aspects of a probationer's demeanor
    that indicate substance use. A probation officer may observe evidence of substance
    use through routine visits to probationers or unannounced5 check-ins. A probation
    officer could receive tips or interview witnesses to determine whether a probation
    violation has occurred.
    A probation officer may even discover facts creating an inference that a
    violation has occurred through regular interaction with the probationer.                        For
    example, in United States v. Duff, 
    831 F.2d 176
    (9th Cir. 1987), the Ninth Circuit
    noted that a urinalysis test of a probationer must be supported by reasonable
    suspicion. 6 
    Id. at 179.
    The court noted that reasonable suspicion existed given the
    probationer's behavior:
    5
    The majority suggests that reasonable suspicion would be impractical in part because
    urinalysis tests must be unannounced in order to serve the State's rehabilitative interests. Majority
    at 16-17. But whether a search is announced or not has nothing to do with the degree of
    individualized suspicion supporting that search. Indeed, law enforcement officers do not announce
    every search they perform before they begin, even when those searches are supported with a
    warrant. In other words, reasonable suspicion would provide probation officers the authority to
    conduct a urinalysis test. Whether they give the probationer advance notice as to when the test
    will occur is within their discretion.
    6
    I note that some federal courts, despite employing the special needs doctrine, have held
    that urinalysis testing of probationers must be supported by a reasonable suspicion that a probation
    violation occurred. See, e.g., United States v. Giannetta, 
    909 F.2d 571
    , 576 (1st Cir. 1990)
    (urinalysis test is justified "so long as the decision to search was in fact narrowly and properly
    15
    State v. Olsen, No. 93315-4
    (Fairhurst, C.J., dissenting)
    The probation officer had reasonable suspicion that Duff might be using
    drugs. Duff was not gainfully employed, he had allegedly filled out
    false prescriptions for Percodan, he allegedly was involved with a group
    that burglarized his house, and he consistently failed to meet with or
    cooperate with his probation officer.
    
    Id. As in
    Diif.f, a trained probation officer may be able to learn certain facts that
    indicate relapse into substance use.           For example, persistent unemployment,
    fraternization with known enablers, consistent failure to cooperate, along with other
    factors, may give rise to an inference that the probationer is at risk of using alcohol
    or a controlled substance. There may be other facts, short of direct observation, that
    rehabilitative professionals consider relevant in determining whether an individual
    is using substances. These facts would not be difficult to obtain and would likely
    satisfy the reasonable suspicion standard. Contrary to the majority's assertion, the
    reasonable suspicion standard would not prevent the State from effectuating its
    goals, and it arguably comports with the majority's strict scrutiny analysis.
    Nevertheless, the majority rejects the reasonable suspicion standard. But it
    assures us that, regardless, urinalysis tests must be conducted "in a []reasonable
    manner," and that they cannot be "exploratory." Majority at 20. But these promises
    ring hollow. How can a court evaluate the reasonableness of a search if there is not
    made on the basis of reasonable suspicion"); see also 
    Duff, 831 F.2d at 179
    . These cases reveal
    the irony in the majority's opinion. Despite acknowledging that the Washington Constitution
    provides "increased protection" for the collection and testing of bodily fluids when compared to
    federal courts, majority at 3, the ultimate result actually provides less.
    16
    State v. Olsen, No. 93315-4
    (Fairhurst, C.J., dissenting)
    even a minimal requirement of individualized suspicion to justify it? Typically, the
    reasonable suspicion standard protects probationers from unreasonable, exploratory,
    or otherwise arbitrary or capricious searches. See 
    Simms, 10 Wash. App. at 84
    . By
    removing the reasonable suspicion standard, the majority's opinion can no longer
    assure the same protection because it essentially makes probationary urinalysis tests
    unreviewable.
    In conclusion, the majority's opinion adopts a strict scrutiny test that is the
    functional equivalent of the federal special needs doctrine. This expansion of our
    jurisprudence diminishes the differences between the Fourth Amendment and article
    I, section 7. Further, this decision confuses the standard by which we evaluate
    probationary searches and may result in consequences beyond the probationary
    context. I dissent.
    17
    State v. Olsen, No. 93315-4
    (Fairhurst, C.J., dissenting)
    18