Alex Jordan Vaughn v. State ( 2017 )


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  •                IN THE SUPREME COURT, STATE OF WYOMING
    
    2017 WY 29
    OCTOBER TERM, A.D. 2016
    March 9, 2017
    ALEX JORDAN VAUGHN,
    Appellant
    (Defendant),
    v.                                                   S-16-0169
    THE STATE OF WYOMING,
    Appellee
    (Plaintiff).
    Appeal from the District Court of Park County
    The Honorable Steven R. Cranfill, Judge
    Representing Appellant:
    Office of the State Public Defender: Diane Lozano, State Public Defender; Tina
    N. Olson, Chief Appellate Counsel; Kirk A. Morgan, Senior Assistant Appellate
    Counsel. Argument by Mr. Morgan.
    Representing Appellee:
    Peter K. Michael, Wyoming Attorney General; David L. Delicath, Deputy
    Attorney General; James Michael Causey, Senior Assistant Attorney General;
    John A. Brodie, Assistant Attorney General. Argument by Mr. Brodie.
    Before BURKE, C.J., and HILL, DAVIS, FOX, and KAUTZ, JJ.
    NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in Pacific Reporter Third.
    Readers are requested to notify the Clerk of the Supreme Court, Supreme Court Building,
    Cheyenne, Wyoming 82002, of any typographical or other formal errors so that correction may be
    made before final publication in the permanent volume.
    DAVIS, Justice.
    [¶1] Appellant Alex J. Vaughn was adjudicated a delinquent juvenile for committing a
    serious sexual offense that required him to register as an offender under the Wyoming
    Sexual Offender Registration Act (WSORA). He subsequently failed to report changes
    in his address as required, and pled guilty to two felony counts for failing to do so. His
    plea was conditional and allowed him to appeal his convictions on constitutional grounds.
    We affirm.
    ISSUES
    [¶2] 1. Is Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 7-19-301(a)(iii) of the WSORA unconstitutional as
    applied to Appellant because it creates an irreconcilable conflict with Wyoming’s
    Juvenile Justice Act (WJJA), Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 14-6-201 et seq.?
    2. Does Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 7-19-301(a)(iii) of the WSORA violate Appellant’s
    right to equal protection under the Wyoming Constitution because qualifying adjudicated
    delinquents must register, while adults (or juveniles charged as adults) whose
    prosecutions are deferred pursuant to Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 7-13-301 are not required to
    register?
    3. Does the WSORA’s lifetime registration provision in Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 7-19-
    304(a) violate Appellant’s right to due process (1) because it encroaches upon his
    protected right to reputation and confidentiality or (2) by creating an irrebuttable
    presumption that an offender’s risk of reoffense is high?
    4. Does Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 7-19-301(a)(iii) of the WSORA violate the United
    States Constitution Art. 1, § 10 prohibition against enacting ex post facto laws?
    FACTS
    [¶3] As explained in more detail in the discussion below, see infra ¶¶ 13-15, the
    WSORA requires individuals who have committed certain sex crimes to register as sex
    offenders in Wyoming. See Wyo. Stat. Ann. §§ 7-19-301(a)(iii), (viii) & -302
    (LexisNexis 2015). On July 1, 2011, the number of those subject to the act expanded, as
    the definition of “convicted” of a sex offense under WSORA was amended to include
    “adjudications as a delinquent for offenses specified in W.S. 7-19-302(j).” See 2011
    Wyo Sess. Laws Ch. 179, § 1 (H.B. 23). This amendment not only affected qualifying
    juveniles from that point on, but also applied to those that had been previously
    adjudicated as delinquents for such serious sexual crimes. 
    Id. The latter
    scenerio is
    where Appellant’s circumstance falls.
    1
    [¶4] A few months before the amendment, in May of 2011, Appellant, then 17 years
    old, appeared in juvenile court and was adjudicated a delinquent for a sexual offense as
    provided in the WJJA, § 14-6-201. He was placed at the Wyoming Boys School,
    released on December 1, 2012, and placed on supervised probation. After he completed
    the requirements it had ordered, the juvenile court closed and sealed his file in April of
    2013.
    [¶5] Because the expanded definition of “convicted” applied to Appellant, he was
    required to register as a sex offender when the amendment went into effect in July of
    2011. He apparently complied with the reporting requirements until 2014. On July 8,
    2014, Vaughn reported in person to the Park County Sheriff’s Office to register as a sex
    offender as required by the WSORA. He informed the deputies that he lived in an
    apartment complex in Cody, but he failed to return the required address verification form
    to the sheriff’s office. As a result, two months later the sheriff reported Appellant to the
    Wyoming Sex Offender Registry as non-compliant. In October of 2014, an investigator
    with the Park County Sheriff’s Office learned that Appellant had moved from the Cody
    apartment complex in August, and that he did not notify the sheriff’s office of this move.
    [¶6] An information charging Appellant with two felonies for failing to keep his sex
    offender registration information current was filed on December 1, 2014.1 Appellant
    filed a motion to dismiss, asserting that the WSORA was unconstitutional. The district
    court denied Appellant’s motion. He then entered a conditional guilty plea to the crimes
    charged pursuant to a plea agreement, reserving the right to appeal the district court’s
    denial of his motion to dismiss. He was sentenced to not less than two nor more than
    four years of imprisonment, and he timely perfected this appeal.
    STANDARD OF REVIEW
    [¶7] Appellant’s issues are all based upon claims that the WSORA is unconstitutional.
    “The question of whether a statute is constitutional is a question of law over which this
    Court exercises de novo review.” Kammerer v. State, 
    2014 WY 50
    , ¶ 5, 
    322 P.3d 827
    ,
    830 (Wyo. 2014). Statutes are presumed to be constitutional, and we will resolve any
    doubt in favor of constitutionality. 
    Id. DISCUSSION The
    WSORA and the WJJA
    [¶8] Appellant first argues that the non-penal, equitable and confidential character of
    the WJJA conflicts irreconcilably with the WSORA’s registry requirements for
    1
    A sex offender who fails to comply with the Act is subject to criminal prosecution. Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 7-
    19-307.
    2
    adjudicated juvenile offenders. He contends this conflict creates a constitutionally
    impermissible ambiguity in these statutes, which ought to require that they be interpreted
    in his favor due to the rule of lenity.2
    [¶9] In order to address Appellant’s first issue, we must necessarily interpret both the
    WSORA and WJJA. Rulings involving interpretation of statutes are reviewed de novo.
    In re HLL, 
    2016 WY 43
    , ¶ 21, 
    372 P.3d 185
    , 189 (Wyo. 2016). Statutes that provide for
    the care and discipline of juveniles are generally given a liberal and practical construction
    in favor of the child’s welfare. KP v. State, 
    2004 WY 165
    , ¶ 27, 
    102 P.3d 217
    , 225
    (Wyo. 2004) (quoting TPJ v. State, 
    2003 WY 49
    , ¶ 25, 
    66 P.3d 710
    , 715 (Wyo. 2003)).
    The plain language of the statutes still controls our search for the legislature’s intent,
    however. 
    Id. [¶10] We
    construe statutory provisions in pari materia, which requires that we give
    effect to every word, clause, and sentence according to the interplay between the
    provisions. Cheyenne Newspapers, Inc. v. City of Cheyenne, 
    2016 WY 125
    , ¶ 11, 
    386 P.3d 329
    , 333 (Wyo. 2016). We consider all statutes relating to the same subject or
    having the same general purpose, and we strive to interpret them harmoniously. 
    Id. “We presume
    that the legislature has acted in a thoughtful and rational manner with full
    knowledge of existing law, and that it intended new statutory provisions to be read in
    harmony with existing law and as part of an overall and uniform system of
    jurisprudence.” 
    Id. (quoting Robert
    L. Kroenlein Trust ex rel. Alden v. Kirchhefer, 
    2015 WY 127
    , ¶ 22, 
    357 P.3d 1118
    , 1126 (Wyo. 2015)).
    [¶11] With these principles in mind, we turn first to the WJJA, which Wyoming enacted
    in the mid-20th Century. See Wyoming Compiled Statutes, § 1-701 et seq., (Arthur A.
    Sandusky, comp. 1945, 1957 Cum. Supp.); 1951 Wyo. Sess. Laws Ch. 125 (H.B. 35).
    Cases under the WJJA are not criminal; rather, they are special proceedings. KP, ¶ 
    27, 102 P.3d at 225
    . These proceedings are therefore equitable and not punitive. They are
    intended to assure “treatment, training and rehabilitation” for children, and to “provide
    for the care, the protection and the wholesome moral, mental and physical development
    of children” coming within its provisions. Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 14-6-201(c)(ii)(C) and
    (c)(iii); KP, ¶ 
    27, 102 P.3d at 225
    . Thus, “one of the purposes of a delinquency
    proceeding is ‘[t]o remove, where appropriate, the taint of criminality from children
    committing certain unlawful acts.’” K.C. v. State, 
    2011 WY 108
    , ¶ 16, 
    257 P.3d 23
    , 28
    (Wyo. 2011) (quoting Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 14-6-201(c)(ii)(B)).
    [¶12] Accordingly, “[t]he question for adjudication is whether the allegations contained
    in the petition alleging delinquency are true.” K.C., ¶ 
    16, 257 P.3d at 28
    . If the
    2
    The rule of lenity provides that in construing an ambiguous criminal statute, a court should resolve any
    ambiguity in favor of the defendant. Adekale v. State, 
    2015 WY 30
    , ¶ 25, 
    344 P.3d 761
    , 768 (Wyo.
    2015). When a statute is unambiguous, the rule of lenity has no role to play. Crain v. State, 
    2009 WY 128
    , ¶ 10, 
    218 P.3d 934
    , 940 (Wyo. 2009).
    3
    allegations are found to be true, such a finding “is not deemed a conviction of guilt, but is
    a determination that judicial intervention is necessary for the best interest and welfare of
    the child and the public.” Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 14-6-225(b).3 “No order or decree pursuant
    to this act shall be deemed a conviction of a crime or impose any civil disabilities, nor
    shall it disqualify the child for any civil or military service application or appointment or
    from holding public office.” Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 14-6-238. To prevent the public from
    knowing of an adjudication of delinquency, the WJJA requires that the case and all
    records flowing from it remain confidential, with certain strict exceptions. Wyo. Stat.
    Ann. § 14-6-239.
    [¶13] Now that we have considered the WJJA’s ethos and its requirements, we must
    examine the WSORA. As we briefly noted above, see supra ¶ 3, the WSORA requires
    individuals who have committed certain sexual crimes to register as sex offenders. In
    1994, Wyoming joined the majority of other states in enacting legislation relating to sex
    offender registration. Kammerer, ¶ 
    6, 322 P.3d at 830
    . Originally the WSORA only
    applied to adults, but in 2011, the act was amended to include juveniles who were
    adjudicated delinquent for certain serious sexual offenses. See 2011 Wyo. Sess. Laws
    Ch. 179 (H.B. 23). The WSORA now includes the following language:
    “Convicted” includes pleas of guilty, nolo contendere,
    verdicts of guilty upon which a judgment of conviction may
    be rendered and adjudications as a delinquent for offenses
    specified in W.S. 7-19-302(j). “Convicted” shall not include
    dispositions pursuant to W.S. 7-13-301.
    Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 7-19-301(a)(iii) (emphasis added).
    [¶14] Under the WSORA, qualifying sexual offenders must register with the county
    sheriff in their county of residence. Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 7-19-302(a). “The basic
    provisions of the Act require the registrant to provide identifying information, including
    the registrant’s name, aliases, address, date and place of birth, social security number,
    place and address of employment, a DNA sample, and any internet identifiers.”
    3
    Proceedings under the WJJA are different than criminal proceedings for adults, although juveniles are
    afforded certain rights commonly found in criminal cases. One of the stated purposes of the WJJA is to
    “provide a simple judicial procedure through which the provisions of this act are executed and enforced
    and in which the parties are assured a fair and timely hearing and their constitutional and other legal rights
    recognized and enforced.” Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 14-6-201(c)(vi). “The act specifically provides that children
    in juvenile court proceedings have the right to notice of the charges against them, the right to counsel, the
    privilege against self-incrimination, the right to confront adverse witnesses, and the requirement that
    charges against them must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt.” SWM v. State, 
    2013 WY 49
    , ¶ 14, 
    299 P.3d 673
    , 677 (Wyo. 2013) (citing Wyo. Stat. Ann. §§ 14-6-222, -223, and -225). While the WJJA “does
    not explicitly address the question, we have recognized that double jeopardy attaches in juvenile
    proceedings.” SWM, ¶ 
    14, 299 P.3d at 677
    . An alleged delinquent is entitled to trial by jury at an
    adjudicatory hearing. Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 14-6-223(c).
    4
    Kammerer, ¶ 
    7, 322 P.3d at 830
    . The offender is also required to “provide the date and
    place of his conviction, the crime for which he was convicted, the age of each victim, the
    name and address of educational institutions at which the registrant is employed or
    attending school, the license plate number and description of his vehicle, and any phone
    number at which the registrant may be reached.” 
    Id. (citing §
    7-19-302(a)). The
    registrant must also be photographed and fingerprinted. 
    Id. [¶15] The
    WSORA also establishes a central registry for offenders, and it requires that
    certain identifying information be made available to the public. Kammerer, ¶ 
    8, 322 P.3d at 831
    (citing § 7-19-303(a), (c)(iii)). The limited notice provisions that apply to
    qualifying juveniles mandate that the offender’s information “be provided . . . to
    residential neighbors within at least seven hundred fifty (750) feet of the offender’s
    residence, organizations in the community, including schools, religious and youth
    organizations . . . .” Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 7-19-303(c)(ii). “In addition, notification
    regarding an offender employed by or attending school at any educational institution shall
    be provided upon request by the educational institution to a member of the institution’s
    campus community . . . .” 
    Id. However, unlike
    adult offenders, a juvenile’s information
    is not made available to the general public on the internet. Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 7-19-
    303(c)(iii). The method of disseminating information does not change when a juvenile
    sex offender reaches the age of majority, as Appellant had when he was charged in this
    case. 
    Id. [¶16] After
    comparing the two acts, we understand how one might say there is an
    irreconcilable tension between the confidentiality requirements of the WJJA, and the
    requirement that information concerning an adjudicated delinquent be made available to a
    limited circle of the public under the WSORA. We further recognize that the limited
    public notification requirement for juveniles under the WSORA could stigmatize juvenile
    offenders. But as we dig deeper into the purpose of the WJJA, we perceive a
    congruency, rather than a conflict, between the two acts.
    [¶17] From its inception, the WJJA was intended to serve the best interests of children
    and to provide a path towards a promising future for delinquent youth.4 In 1997, our
    legislature expanded the purpose of the WJJA to provide for the “protection of the public
    and public safety.” 1997 Wyo. Sess. Laws Ch. 199, § 2 (H.B. 137A). The current
    version of the WJJA maintains this purpose:
    (c) This act shall be construed to effectuate the following
    public purposes:
    4
    See, e.g., Wyoming Compiled Statutes, § 1-701 et seq. (Arthur A. Sandusky, comp. 1945, 1957 Cum.
    Supp.).
    5
    (i) To provide for the best interests of the child and the
    protection of the public and public safety;
    (ii) Consistent with the best interests of the child and
    the protection of the public and public safety[.]
    Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 14-6-201(c)(i), (ii).
    [¶18] The plain language of the WJJA shows that it is to be administered to assure
    public safety as well as to promote the best interest of the child. Furthermore, as we have
    already said, we presume that the legislature acted in a thoughtful and rational manner
    with full knowledge of the WJJA, and that it was therefore aware it was limiting
    protections under it by applying the WSORA to certain juvenile delinquents. Cheyenne
    Newspapers, Inc., ¶ 
    11, 386 P.3d at 333
    . As a result, we can only conclude that the
    registration and limited notification requirements for certain adjudicated delinquents
    under the WSORA do not conflict with the purposes of the WJJA.5 Because the two acts
    do not conflict, there is no constitutional violation as Appellant asserts.
    Equal Protection
    [¶19] Appellant also contends that § 7-19-301(a)(iii) of the WSORA violates his equal
    protection rights under the Wyoming Constitution.6 He contends that adult offenders
    whose charges are disposed of and who successfully complete a period of probation
    under Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 7-13-301 are not considered to have been convicted, and
    therefore are not required to register as sex offenders. See Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 7-19-
    301(a)(iii). He goes on to argue that there is no such provision for juveniles under the
    WJJA, and consequently the WSORA establishes a distinction based upon classification.
    5
    Other courts have reached the same conclusion. The Nevada Supreme Court recently found that “based
    on Nevada’s long-standing recognition of public protection as one of the dual interests of the juvenile
    system, we conclude that registration and community notification do not inherently conflict with the
    purposes of Nevada’s juvenile justice system.” State v. Eighth Jud. Dist. Ct. (Logan D.), 
    306 P.3d 369
    ,
    381 (Nev. 2013). Similarly, the Illinois Supreme Court concluded that because the expanded purpose of
    the juvenile courts to include public protection and juvenile accountability, the requirement that juvenile
    sex offenders register—thereby subjecting them to limited community notification—did not conflict with
    the policy and purpose of the juvenile system. In re J.W., 
    787 N.E.2d 747
    , 759 (Ill. 2003); see also In re
    Richard A., 
    946 A.2d 204
    , 214 (R.I. 2008) (concluding “that the nature of the juvenile-justice system is
    not significantly compromised by a sex-offender-registration requirement. As such, the Registration Act
    is constitutional as applied to juveniles and respondent is not entitled to a jury trial.”); cf. United States v.
    Juvenile Male, 
    670 F.3d 999
    , 1008 (9th Cir. 2012) (finding that although SORNA’s notification
    requirement conflicted with the confidentiality provisions of the Federal Juvenile Delinquency Act,
    Congress clearly intended to limit those confidentiality provisions); United States v. Under Seal, 
    709 F.3d 257
    , 262 (4th Cir. 2013) (same).
    6
    Wyoming’s equal protection provisions are contained in Article 1, §§ 2, 7, 34, and 35.
    6
    [¶20] There is in fact a provision under the WJJA that provides for deferred
    adjudications for alleged delinquents. That provision states:
    Abeyance of proceedings by consent decree; term of
    decree; reinstatement of proceedings; effect of discharge
    or completing term.
    (a) At any time after the filing of a petition alleging a child
    delinquent and before adjudication, the court may issue a
    consent decree ordering further proceedings held in abeyance
    and place a delinquent child under the supervision of a
    probation officer. The placement of the child is subject to the
    terms, conditions and stipulations agreed to by the parties
    affected. The consent decree shall not be entered without the
    consent of the district attorney, the child’s attorney, where
    applicable, and the child and the notification of the parents.
    Modifications to an existing consent decree may be allowed.
    (b) The consent decree shall be in writing and copies given to
    each of the parties. The decree shall include the case plan for
    the child.
    (c) A consent decree shall be in force for the period agreed
    upon by the parties but not longer than one (1) year unless the
    child is sooner discharged by the court.
    (d) If prior to discharge by the court or expiration of the
    consent decree, a child alleged to be delinquent fails to fulfill
    the terms and conditions of the decree or a new petition is
    filed alleging the child delinquent because of misconduct
    occurring during the term of the consent decree, the original
    petition and proceedings may be reinstated upon order of the
    court after hearing and the matter may proceed as though the
    consent decree had never been entered. If, as part of the
    consent decree, the child made an admission to any of the
    allegations contained in the original petition, that admission
    shall be entered only if the court orders that the original
    petition and proceeding be reinstated and the admissions, if
    any, be entered. If the admission is entered, the court may
    proceed to disposition pursuant to W.S. 14-6-226.
    7
    (e) If a consent decree is in effect and the child is in
    placement, the court shall hold a six (6) month and twelve
    (12) month review under W.S. 14-6-229.
    (f) A child discharged by the court under a consent decree
    without reinstatement of the original petition and proceeding
    shall not thereafter be proceeded against in any court for the
    same offense or misconduct alleged in the original petition.
    Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 14-6-228.7
    [¶21] If the court issues a consent decree ordering further proceedings held in abeyance,
    and the juvenile complies with the terms of the decree, he will be discharged and never
    adjudicated a delinquent, just as the defendant in a 301 deferral would. In such a case,
    the juvenile would not be subject to the WSORA. There is no meaningful distinction
    between a consent decree and a 301 deferral. For this reason alone, if not for others,
    because juveniles are afforded the same opportunity as adults to enter into a consent
    decree deferring their respective cases, the WSORA does not violate the Wyoming
    Constitution’s equal protection clause, Art. 1 § 2.
    Due Process Rights
    [¶22] Appellant also contends that the WSORA’s lifetime registration provision violates
    his due process rights under the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
    and Article 1, § 6 of the Wyoming Constitution as applied to him. This is so, he says,
    because registering improperly encroaches on his protected liberty interest in his
    reputation and the confidentiality provided for under the WJJA. He also claims that the
    7
    Deferring a juvenile adjudication is not a new remedy in Wyoming. In 1951, the WJJA provided:
    Deferred Hearing.
    b. If the court determines a deferred hearing would be for the best
    interests of the child, and not in conflict with the best interests of the
    public, the judge shall hold legal process with respect to the child in
    abeyance for six months, contingent upon the good behavior of the child.
    During this period of six months, the child shall be under the informal
    supervision of either a probation officer or county welfare worker,
    whichever the judge may direct. The court shall administratively close
    the case upon the child’s satisfactory completion of the six month period,
    or process the original petition forthwith where there is a subsequent
    delinquency.
    See Wyoming Compiled Statutes, § 1-711(b) (Arthur A. Sandusky, comp. 1945, 1957 Cum. Supp).
    8
    registration requirement creates an impermissible irrebuttable presumption that he is at
    high risk to reoffend.
    [¶23] We begin our analysis by turning to the relevant constitutional due process
    provisions. The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits any
    state from depriving “any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law.”
    U.S. Const. amend. 4, § 1. Similarly, the Wyoming Constitution’s Due Process Clause
    states that “[n]o person shall be deprived of life, liberty or property without due process
    of law.” Wyo. Const. Art. 1, § 6. Both constitutions employ the same language, and we
    have held that they afford equivalent protections. See Reiter v. State, 
    2001 WY 116
    , ¶
    19, 
    36 P.3d 586
    , 592 (Wyo. 2001)
    [¶24] Due process has both procedural and substantive components. Reiter, ¶ 
    20, 36 P.3d at 592
    . The two components are distinct because each has different aims and
    imposes different constitutional limitations on the government’s power. See 
    id. The United
    States Supreme Court has explained: “[T]he Due Process Clause provides that
    certain substantive rights—life, liberty, and property—cannot be deprived except
    pursuant to constitutionally adequate procedures. The categories of substance and
    procedure are distinct.” Cleveland Bd. of Education v. Loudermill, 
    470 U.S. 532
    , 541,
    
    105 S. Ct. 1487
    , 1493, 
    84 L. Ed. 2d 494
    (1985).
    [¶25] Appellant does not advise us whether he claims the alleged due process violations
    are substantive or procedural. Our understanding after reading his brief and listening to
    oral argument is that the alleged due process violation regarding reputation and
    confidentiality is a substantive claim, while his irrebuttable presumption theory is
    procedural. We will address the arguments accordingly.
    Protected Right to Reputation and Confidentiality
    [¶26] The substantive component of due process “bars certain arbitrary, wrongful
    government actions regardless of the fairness of the procedures used to implement them.”
    Reiter, ¶ 
    20, 36 P.3d at 592
    -93 (citations and quotation marks omitted); see Laughter v.
    Bd. of Cnty. Comm’rs for Sweetwater Cnty., 
    2005 WY 54
    , ¶ 42, 
    110 P.3d 875
    , 887 (Wyo.
    2005). We have principally adopted “the two-tiered scrutiny employed by the federal
    courts in analyzing substantive due process . . . challenges.” Reiter, ¶ 
    20, 36 P.3d at 593
    .
    If a statute affects a fundamental interest, we must strictly scrutinize that statute to
    determine if it is necessary to achieve a compelling state interest—often referred to as the
    strict scrutiny test. 
    Id. On the
    other hand, if the statute simply affects ordinary interests
    in the economic and social welfare area, we only need to determine that it is rationally
    related to a legitimate state objective, which is often referred to as the rational basis test.
    
    Id. 9 [¶27]
    Fundamental rights are those liberties that are objectively deeply rooted in this
    country’s history and tradition.8 Washington v. Glucksberg, 
    521 U.S. 702
    , 720-21, 
    117 S. Ct. 2258
    , 2268, 
    138 L. Ed. 2d 772
    (1997). New fundamental rights are rarely found
    “because guideposts for responsible decision making in this unchartered area are scarce
    and open-ended.” Collins v. City of Harker Hts., Tex., 
    503 U.S. 115
    , 125, 
    112 S. Ct. 1061
    , 1068, 
    117 L. Ed. 2d 261
    (1992); see also 
    Glucksberg, 521 U.S. at 721
    , 117 S.Ct. at
    2268. “By extending constitutional protection to an asserted right or liberty interest, we,
    to a great extent, place the matter outside the arena of public debate and legislative
    action.” 
    Glucksberg, 521 U.S. at 720
    , 117 S.Ct. at 2267-68. Accordingly, courts must
    “exercise the utmost care whenever [they] are asked to break new ground in this field,
    lest the liberty protected by the Due Process Clause be subtly transformed into the policy
    preferences” of individual judges. 
    Id. (citations and
    quotation marks omitted).
    [¶28] This Court has had several opportunities to consider whether a fundamental right
    has been at issue. For example, we have determined that the right to associate with one’s
    family is a fundamental constitutional right. Michael v. Hertzler, 
    900 P.2d 1144
    , 1147
    (Wyo. 1995). Access to the courts has also been found to be a fundamental right. Mills
    v. Reynolds, 
    837 P.2d 48
    , 54 (Wyo. 1992); see also Kordus v. Montes, 
    2014 WY 146
    , ¶
    10, 
    337 P.3d 1138
    , 1141 (Wyo. 2014). An opportunity for an education is fundamental
    as well. See In re RM, 
    2004 WY 162
    , ¶ 18, 
    102 P.3d 868
    , 874 (Wyo. 2004).
    [¶29] Appellant does not contend that there is a fundamental right at issue under either
    the United States or Wyoming constitutions regarding his reputation and his statutory
    right to confidentiality of his adjudication as a juvenile under the WJJA. He provides no
    basis for us to conclude that such a right is deeply rooted in our nation’s history and
    tradition. Our own research does not reveal a reason to believe it is. See, e.g., State v.
    Eighth Jud. Dist. Ct. (Logan D.), 
    306 P.3d 369
    , 375-76 (Nev. 2013) (applying rational
    basis test to juvenile required to register as a sexual offender registration as no
    fundamental right at issue); United States v. Juvenile Male, 
    670 F.3d 999
    , 1012 (9th Cir.
    2012) (same); In re J.W., 
    787 N.E.2d 747
    , 757 (Ill. 2003) (same); Paul v. Davis, 
    424 U.S. 693
    , 701, 
    96 S. Ct. 1155
    , 1160, 
    47 L. Ed. 2d 405
    (1976) (concluding reputation alone,
    without being coupled with some more tangible interests, does not implicate any liberty
    interests sufficient to invoke the procedural protection of the Due Process Clause). Thus,
    we conclude that juveniles who have been convicted of serious sex offenses do not have a
    fundamental right to be free from the registration and notification requirements set forth
    in the WSORA, even if those require information concerning them and their offenses to
    be disseminated in limited ways and to potentially remain in place for life.
    8
    The Supreme Court of the United States has recognized that fundamental rights include those
    guaranteed by the Bill of Rights as well as certain liberty and privacy interests implicit in the due process
    clause and other constitutional rights. See 
    Glucksberg, 521 U.S. at 720
    , 117 S.Ct. at 2267. Such
    important liberty interests include “the rights to marry, to have children, to direct the education and
    upbringing of one’s children, to marital privacy, to use contraception, to bodily integrity, and to abortion.”
    
    Id. (citations omitted).
    10
    [¶30] Because the WSORA does not implicate Appellant’s liberty in a manner that
    impacts a fundamental right, we must decide only whether the WSORA’s registration
    requirement as applied to Appellant as a juvenile is reasonably related to a legitimate
    government interest. The rational basis test does not require that the law “be in every
    respect logically consistent with its aims to be constitutional.” United States v.
    Comstock, 
    560 U.S. 126
    , 151, 
    130 S. Ct. 1949
    , 1966, 
    176 L. Ed. 2d 878
    (2010) (quoting
    Williamson v. Lee Optical of Oklahoma, Inc., 
    348 U.S. 483
    , 487-88, 
    75 S. Ct. 461
    , 
    99 L. Ed. 563
    (1955). Rather, “[i]t is enough that there is an evil at hand for correction, and
    that it might be thought that the particular legislative measure was a rational way to
    correct it.” 
    Id. [¶31] We
    find the WSORA’s registration requirement for qualifying juveniles is
    rationally related to a legitimate government interest. As we have explained above, see
    supra ¶¶ 11-12, although the WJJA promotes the best interests of minors in our juvenile
    court system, its purpose is also for “the protection of the public and public safety.”
    Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 14-6-201(c)(i), (ii). In protecting the public, the WSORA aids in the
    prevention, avoidance, and investigation of future sex offenses. Kammerer, ¶ 
    28, 322 P.3d at 838
    ; see also Snyder v. State, 
    912 P.2d 1127
    , 1132 (Wyo. 1996). Consistent with
    this purpose, our legislature determined that juveniles adjudicated for offenses under § 7-
    19-302(j)—which are the most serious of sexual offenses—must register in order to
    protect the public.
    [¶32] The juvenile’s registration information is available only to a limited group of the
    public, including certain neighbors, schools and organizations. Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 7-19-
    303(c)(ii); see also Kammerer, ¶ 
    8, 322 P.3d at 831
    . Notification to an educational
    institution the juvenile offender is attending or where he works must also be provided
    upon request by the institution. 
    Id. However, unlike
    an adult, a juvenile’s information is
    not made available to the general public through the public registry on the internet. Wyo.
    Stat. Ann. § 7-19-303(c)(iii); compare Kammerer, ¶ 
    8, 322 P.3d at 831
    . Providing a
    juvenile offender’s information to a limited group of people whose safety may be
    compromised constitutes a reasonable method of protecting the public.
    [¶33] We cannot say that the registration requirement of the WSORA, as applied to one
    who offended as a juvenile as Appellant did, is irrational.
    Irrebuttable Presumption
    [¶34] Appellant argues that while he and others who offended as juveniles are afforded
    the necessary procedural due process in the underlying delinquency adjudication, he is
    denied due process because he cannot challenge whether he should be required to register
    under the WSORA after adjudication. The absence of a meaningful process, Appellant
    11
    posits, turns the requirement that Appellant register under the WSORA into an
    irrebuttable presumption that he is at high risk to reoffend.
    [¶35] We have previously noted that irrebuttable presumption claims sometimes arise as
    a matter of substantive due process. See Moreno v. Dep’t of Revenue & Taxation, 
    775 P.2d 497
    , 500-01 (Wyo. 1989). Referring to older United States Supreme Court
    precedent on that topic, this Court commented that “those holdings represent anomalies
    in substantive due process and equal protection analysis.” 
    Id. at 500.
    This Court further
    recognized that these cases do “not consider the character of the alleged life, liberty, or
    property interest affected” and “might be interpreted to inject a strict judicial scrutiny
    standard of review into the substantive due process analysis every time a litigant can
    locate a conclusive statutory presumption.” 
    Id. The Court
    went on to comment that such
    an “approach would wreak havoc with traditional due process and equal protection
    analyses which focus first on the asserted life, liberty, or property entitlement involved or
    an alleged invidious discrimination against a discrete minority, or infringement of a
    fundamental constitutional right.” 
    Id. [¶36] This
    Court further explained that the United States Supreme Court has since
    backed away from a per se application of the irrebuttable presumption doctrine in favor
    of the traditional substantive due process analysis. 
    Id. We noted
    that the doctrine should
    not be applied “in a way that might circumvent this court’s established substantive due
    process or equal protection analysis.” 
    Id. at 501.
    The Court concluded that “[a] statute
    violates substantive due process when a litigant with standing shows that the challenged
    statute adversely affects a recognized life, liberty, or property entitlement and in doing so
    does not promote a legitimate state objective by reasonable means.” 
    Id. [¶37] We
    do not find this to be an issue of substantive due process, which renders the
    irrebuttable presumption cases inapplicable. Appellant does not indicate otherwise.
    Thus, as we have already noted, we look to procedural due process requirements.
    [¶38] The guarantee of procedural due process assures that there will be fair and
    adequate legal proceedings. This Court has explained that “[p]rocedural due process
    principles require reasonable notice and a meaningful opportunity to be heard before
    government action may substantially affect a significant property [or liberty] interest.”
    Pfeil v. Amax Coal W., Inc., 
    908 P.2d 956
    , 961 (Wyo. 1995). To “assess whether an
    individual was denied procedural due process, courts must engage in a two-step inquiry:
    (1) did the individual possess a protected interest such that the due process protections
    were applicable; and, if so, then (2) was the individual afforded an appropriate level of
    process.” Crofts v. State ex rel. Dep’t of Game & Fish, 
    2016 WY 4
    , ¶ 27, 
    367 P.3d 619
    ,
    626 (Wyo. 2016) (quoting Montgomery v. City of Ardmore, 
    365 F.3d 926
    , 935 (10th Cir.
    2004)).
    12
    [¶39] Appellant relies on a recent decision from the Pennsylvania Supreme Court, which
    recognized that the right to reputation was fundamental under that state’s constitution. In
    re J.B., 
    107 A.3d 1
    , 16 (Pa. 2014). Based upon that premise, it held the application of the
    sex offender registration act’s lifetime registration requirements upon adjudication of
    specified offenses violates a juvenile offender’s due process rights by utilizing an
    irrebuttable presumption. 
    Id. at 19-20.
    [¶40] Pennsylvania’s law is distinguishable, and In re J.B. is inapplicable in the instant
    case. Cf. In re A.C., 
    54 N.E.3d 952
    , 964 (Ill. App. 2016). That is because in Wyoming,
    reputation alone has never been recognized as a fundamental right under our state
    constitution. See Crofts, ¶¶ 
    29-30, 367 P.3d at 626
    ; cf. 
    Paul, 424 U.S. at 701-10
    , 96 S.Ct.
    at 1160-65. Another jurisdiction, Illinois, has dealt with a similar issue and provides
    guidance.
    [¶41] An Illinois appellate court faced the question of whether that state’s sexual
    offender registration act violated procedural due process because it did not afford juvenile
    offenders the opportunity to be heard on the issue of their continuing danger to the
    community before requiring them to register. In re J.R., 
    793 N.E.2d 687
    , 697 (Ill. App.
    2003). It determined that the registration act required “sex offenders, including juvenile
    sex offenders, to register not based on dangerousness, but based upon the fact the
    offender was adjudicated delinquent or convicted of a sex offense.” 
    Id. Because the
    disclosure provisions were triggered upon adjudication, it was irrelevant whether the
    juvenile was a continuing danger. Id.; see also In re 
    A.C., 54 N.E.3d at 964
    . We find
    that court’s reasoning persuasive, and we will follow its lead in the instant case.
    [¶42] Appellant could only be adjudicated delinquent of a sex offense after a trial (an
    adjudicatory hearing), as he concedes. However, procedural due process does not entitle
    him—a juvenile found delinquent of committing a serious sex offense—to a second
    hearing to demonstrate that he is not a high risk to reoffend. Whether he is a continuing
    danger is simply not germane to the duty to register as required by the WSORA. The
    WSORA’s registration requirement is reasonable and consistent with a state’s exercise of
    its police power to protect the safety and general welfare of the public from those
    committing serious sexual offenses. See 
    Snyder, 912 P.2d at 1132
    . Appellant has
    directed us to scholarly resources which suggest that juvenile sex offenders are not at as
    great a risk as adult sex offenders to harm others. However, the legislature decided that a
    juvenile offender who commits the kind of offense he was held to have committed should
    be required to register under the WSORA. As already noted, this was a permissible
    choice for that policy-making branch of our government to make.
    [¶43] In sum, Appellant has failed to establish that the WSORA’s registration
    requirement violates his due process rights, substantive or procedural, under the United
    States and Wyoming constitutions.
    13
    Ex Post Facto
    [¶44] This Court has on other occasions considered whether the WSORA violates the
    United States Constitution, Art. 1, § 10, prohibition against enacting ex post facto laws as
    it applies to adult offenders.9 See Kammerer, ¶¶ 
    9-32, 322 P.3d at 831-39
    ; 
    Snyder, 912 P.2d at 1130-31
    . Most recently, in Kammerer, we began our analysis by recognizing that
    the constitutional prohibition against ex post facto laws only applies to statutes that
    impose penalties. ¶¶ 
    9-32, 322 P.3d at 831-39
    . We explained:
    In deciding whether or not a law is penal, this Court has
    generally based its determination upon the purpose of the
    statute. If the statute imposes a disability for the purposes of
    punishment—that is, to reprimand the wrongdoer, to deter
    others, etc., it has been considered penal. But a statute has
    been considered nonpenal if it imposes a disability, not to
    punish, but to accomplish some other legitimate
    governmental purpose. The Court has recognized that any
    statute decreeing some adversity as a consequence of certain
    conduct may have both a penal and a nonpenal effect. The
    controlling nature of such statutes normally depends on the
    evident purpose of the legislature.
    
    Id. ¶ 9,
    322 P.3d at 831 (citations omitted).
    [¶45] We then applied the requisite two-step inquiry to determine whether or not the
    WSORA was penal as applied to an adult sex offender. 
    Id. ¶¶ 13-32,
    322 P.3d at 832-39
    (applying framework set forth in Smith v. Doe, 
    538 U.S. 84
    , 92, 
    123 S. Ct. 1140
    , 1146-47,
    
    155 L. Ed. 2d 164
    (2003)). The first step required a determination as to whether the
    legislature meant the statute to establish civil proceedings. Kammerer, ¶ 
    13, 322 P.3d at 832
    . If the legislature’s intent was to impose punishment, that would end the inquiry. 
    Id. On the
    other hand, if the intent was to enact a regulatory scheme that is civil and non-
    punitive, our task was then to examine whether the statute was punitive to such an
    extent—either in purpose or effect— that it negated the legislature’s intention that it be
    considered civil. 
    Id. [¶46] As
    to the first step, we examined the legislature’s intent in enacting the WSORA,
    and reaffirmed our prior precedent holding that the law-making branch intended to
    impose regulatory, as opposed to punitive, requirements. 
    Id. ¶ 18,
    322 P.3d at 834. We
    then turned to the second step as to whether the effect of the WSORA negates the
    legislature’s intent to create regulatory requirements for sex offenders. 
    Id. ¶¶ 19-32,
    322
    P.3d at 834-39. We thoroughly analyzed this step by applying relevant factors “to
    9
    Article 1, § 10 provides that “[n]o state shall . . . pass any . . . ex post facto law . . . .”
    14
    evaluate whether the regulatory scheme (1) has been regarded in our history and
    traditions as a punishment, (2) imposes an affirmative disability or restraint, (3) promotes
    the traditional aims of punishment, (4) has a rational connection to a nonpunitive
    purpose, or (5) is excessive with respect to this purpose.” 
    Id. ¶ 19,
    322 P.3d at 834
    (citing 
    Smith, 538 U.S. at 97
    , 123 S.Ct. at 1149). After applying these factors to the
    WSORA, we concluded “that the effects of the [WSORA] do not override the
    legislature’s intent to enact a regulatory scheme for registration of sex offenders.” 
    Id. ¶ 19,
    322 P.3d at 834. Because we determined that the effects of the WSORA do not
    negate the legislature’s intent to impose a regulatory scheme under the WSORA, we
    again held—as we did in Snyder— that the act does not violate the ex post facto clause of
    the United States Constitution. 
    Id. ¶ 32,
    322 P.3d at 839.
    [¶47] However, Appellant claims that his case is distinguishable because our past
    decisions did not deal with juvenile offenders who are subject to the WSORA. He
    correctly points out that adult criminal convictions for sex offenses are reflected in a
    public record. He claims that since adjudications under the WJJA are confidential, the
    effect of requiring registration and limited notification transforms the legislature’s intent
    to enact a regulatory scheme into a punitive one.
    [¶48] There is no doubt that the legislature’s purpose in enacting the WSORA was to
    impose regulatory, as opposed to punitive, requirements. Kammerer, ¶¶ 15-18 , 322 P.3d
    at 833-34; 
    Snyder, 912 P.2d at 1131
    . Appellant does not dispute this conclusion.
    [¶49] Turning to the effect of the WSORA, and whether it negates the legislature’s
    intent to create regulatory requirements for juvenile sex offenders, we cannot say that it
    does. As to the first factor, the WSORA’s publication and notification requirements are
    not historically regarded as punishment. Kammerer, ¶¶ 
    20-22, 322 P.3d at 834-36
    .
    While the limited dissemination of information relating to a juvenile’s status as a sex
    offender may have some negative connotations, disclosure of certain information is a
    necessary result of the WSORA’s objective to protect the public from harm, just as it is a
    partial purpose of the WJJA. See 
    id. ¶ 21,
    322 P.3d at 836. This factor weighs in favor
    of a finding that the WSORA is not punitive in purpose or effect.
    [¶50] As to the second factor, we must consider “how the effects of the [WSORA] are
    felt by those subject to it.” Kammerer, ¶ 
    23, 322 P.3d at 836
    . We are convinced that the
    disability or restraint as applied to Appellant is slight and indirect, and its effects are not
    punitive. While Appellant must keep his information updated while subject to the
    WSORA, we find that the requirements do not make the act so punitive either in purpose
    or effect as to negate the legislature’s intent to create a regulatory scheme. See 
    id. ¶¶ 23-
    25, 322 P.3d at 836-37
    . This factor likewise does not weigh in favor of a finding that the
    WSORA has a punitive effect.
    15
    [¶51] The third factor looks at the traditional aims of punishment, which are retribution
    and deterrence. The classification of juvenile offenders based on their crimes is not
    indicative of retributive intent. The WSORA “does not have a punitive effect merely
    because it may deter the commission of sex offenses.” 
    Id. ¶ 26,
    322 P.3d at 838. This
    factor also does not weigh in favor of a finding that the WSORA has a punitive effect.
    [¶52] As to the fourth factor, the WSORA bears a rational connection to the purpose of
    public safety, requiring identification of certain juveniles convicted of serious sex
    offenses, and by making that information available to law enforcement agencies and to a
    limited portion of the public. See id. ¶ 
    28, 322 P.3d at 838
    . We reaffirm that “the
    purpose of sex offender registration is to aid in the prevention, avoidance, and
    investigation of future sex offenses.” 
    Id. (citations and
    quotation marks omitted). We are
    not persuaded by Appellant’s assertion that the rational connection effervesces when a
    juvenile is involved. Thus, analysis of this factor does not lead us to conclude that the
    WSORA has a punitive purpose or effect.
    [¶53] Lastly, the legislature’s identification of certain juveniles adjudicated for specified
    sex offenses constitutes a reasonable basis for determining potential risks to the public
    and is not excessive. The WSORA’s registration requirements are a reasonable method
    of achieving the goal of public safety, which is a very important interest. We point out
    that while the WSORA initially requires an offender to register for the rest of his life, this
    duty may terminate in certain cases upon petition to be relieved from that duty. Wyo.
    Stat. Ann. § 7-19-304(a). With respect to juveniles subject to the WSORA, it provides
    that those who have been
    adjudicated as a delinquent for offenses specified in W.S. 7-
    19-302(j), who has been registered for at least ten (10) years,
    exclusive of periods of confinement and periods in which the
    offender was not registered as required by law, may petition
    the district court for the district in which the offender is
    registered to be relieved of the duty to continue to register if
    the offender has maintained a clean record as provided in
    subsection (d) of this section.
    
    Id. at (a)(i).
    “Upon a showing that the offender has maintained a clean record as provided
    in subsection (d) of this section for ten (10) years, the district court may order the
    offender relieved of the duty to continue registration[.]” 
    Id. Because of
    the considerable
    interests at stake, the WSORA’s requirements constitute a reasonable method of
    achieving the goal of public safety. See Kammerer, ¶¶ 31-
    32, 322 P.3d at 839
    . Analysis
    of this factor does not reveal that the WSORA has a punitive purpose or effect.
    [¶54] In sum, these factors weigh against finding that the WSORA has a punitive effect
    as applied to juvenile offenders like Appellant. The WSORA only imposes a regulatory
    16
    burden on certain juvenile offenders adjudicated for serious sexual offenses, and the
    effects of the act do not negate the legislature’s intent to impose that regulatory scheme.
    Thus, we again find that the WSORA does not violate the ex post facto clause of the
    United States Constitution.
    [¶55] We note that Wyoming’s legislature has recently taken steps to see that juvenile
    sex offenders receive a hearing to determine whether they are at significant risk of
    reoffending. See 2016 Wyo. Sess. Laws Ch. 13 (S.F. 47); Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 7-19-309
    (LexisNexis 2016 Supp). This statute requires that the Wyoming Division of Criminal
    Investigation give notice to the district or county attorney in the county where an
    adjudicated offender moves or lives. If that official believes that an offender is at
    moderate or high risk to reoffend, he or she may obtain a determination by a juvenile or
    district court as to the level of risk. If the offender is at low risk, although he must
    continue to notify the local sheriff of his whereabouts, notification of neighbors,
    organizations, etc., is not required. If the offender is at moderate or high risk to reoffend,
    notification must be made to neighbors, organizations, etc., as was the case for all
    juvenile offenders before this most recent enactment. 
    Id. The legislature
    did not make
    this legislation retroactive, and thus Appellant will not benefit from it.10 While we may
    consider this new legislation a fairer means of dealing with juvenile offender notification,
    there is no constitutional infirmity in the legislation which must be applied in this case,
    and it was within the legislature’s power to make the new procedure effective
    prospectively.
    [¶56] Affirmed.
    10
    2016 Wyo. Sess. Laws Ch. 13, § 3 provides:
    “This act shall apply to juvenile convictions or adjudications commenced
    on or after the effective date of this act.”
    The effective date of the act was July 1, 2016. 
    Id. § 4.
    17