L'Association Des Americains Accidentels v. United States Department of State

UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
L’ASSOCIATION DES AMERICAINS
ACCIDENTELS, et al.,
Plaintiffs,
v. Civil Action No. 20-cv-03573 (TSC)
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF
STATE, et al,
Defendants.
MEMORANDUM OPINION
Plaintiffs L’Association des Américains Accidentels and twenty named individuals have
sued the United States Department of State, the Secretary of State, and the Assistant Secretary of
State for Consular Affairs. Plaintiffs allege that the State Department’s 2015 Final Rule
finalizing a citizenship renunciation processing fee violates the Administrative Procedure Act
(“APA”) and customary international law, and that the imposition of any fee is unconstitutional
under the Fifth, First, and Eighth Amendments. Compl., ECF No. 1 ¶¶ 10–15. Defendants have
moved for dismissal pursuant to Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 12(b)(6) on the customary
international law and Eighth Amendment claims, for summary judgment pursuant to Federal
Rule of Civil Procedure 56 on the remaining claims, and in the alternative for summary judgment
on the customary international law and Eighth Amendment claims. Defs.’ Mot., ECF No. 11 at
1. Plaintiffs have cross-moved for summary judgment on the Fifth Amendment, First
Amendment, and customary international law claims. Pls.’ Cross-Mot., ECF No. 13 at 1–2. For
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the reasons set forth below, the court will grant Defendants’ motion to dismiss and for summary
judgment and deny Plaintiffs’ cross-motion for summary judgment.
I. BACKGROUND
L’Association des Américains Accidentels is a Paris-based non-profit organization whose
stated goal is to “represent and defend Accidental Americans who live outside the United States
from the adverse effects of certain American extraterritorial laws.” Compl. ¶ 20. Plaintiffs
describe “Accidental Americans” as “individuals whom the U.S. deems to be American citizens
as a result of being born in the U.S., but who have lived abroad most if not all of their lives as
citizens of another country.” Id. ¶ 127 (citing Peter J. Spiro, Citizenship Overreach, 38 MICH. J.
INT’L L. 167, 167 (2017)).
Plaintiffs claim that the State Department’s $2,350 fee (“Renunciation Fee”) to process a
request for a Certificate of Loss Nationality (“CLN”) in renunciation cases, violates the APA, the
Constitution, and customary international law. They seek declaratory and injunctive relief.
A. Statutory Background
The process for renunciation of U.S. citizenship outside of the U.S. is governed by the
Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) § 349(a)(5), 8 U.S.C. § 1481(a)(5), which provides that a
U.S. citizen can expatriate and renounce their U.S. citizenship by “making a formal renunciation
of nationality before a diplomatic or consular officer of the United States in a foreign state, in
such form as may be prescribed by the Secretary of State.” A U.S. citizen seeking to renounce
their citizenship while abroad must appear in person before a U.S. consular or diplomatic officer
and sign an oath of renunciation. 1 Under 8 U.S.C. § 1501, a U.S. diplomatic or consular officer
1
According to the State Department, the Department of Homeland Security is responsible for
administering domestic expatriations under § 1481(a)(6)–(7). See Defs’ Mem. in Supp. of Mot.,
ECF No. 11-1 at 4 n. 3.
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certifies the facts forming the basis for their belief that a loss of U.S. citizenship has occurred
and, if the consular officer’s report is approved by the Secretary of State, a CLN is issued to the
renunciant. See also 22 C.F.R. §§ 50.40 (c), (e) (“Whenever a diplomatic or consular officer has
reason to believe that a person, while in a foreign country, has lost his U.S. nationality . . .[,] he
shall prepare a certificate of loss of nationality containing the facts upon which such belief is
based and shall forward the certificate to the [State] Department. . . . If the certificate of loss of
nationality is approved by the Department,” the “diplomatic or consular office in which the
certificate was prepared shall then forward a copy of the certificate to the person to whom it
relates or his representative.”).
The Independent Offices Appropriations Act (“IOAA”) authorizes an agency to “charge
for a service or thing of value provided by the agency.” Compl. ¶ 98 (citing 31 U.S.C. § 9701).
“Each charge shall be—(1) Fair; and (2) based on- (A) the costs to the Government; (B) the
value of the service or thing to the recipient; (C) public policy or interest served; and (D) other
relevant facts.” 31 U.S.C. § 9701(b). To determine the actual cost for providing consular
services, the Bureau of Consular Affairs’ Office of the Comptroller uses a Cost of Service Model
(“CoSM”).” Compl. ¶ 102; Pickard Decl., ECF No. 11-2 ¶ 3. The CoSM uses “an activity-based
costing . . . methodology to identify, describe, assign costs to, and report on agency operations”
for various consular products and services. Pickard Decl. ¶ 4 (internal citation omitted).
Activity-based costing “seek[s] to precisely identify and assign costs to processes and activities
and then to individual products and services through the identification of key cost drivers
referred to as resource drivers and activity drivers.” Schedule of Fees for Consular Services,
Department of State and Overseas Embassies and Consulates (“2010 Supplemental NPRM”), 75
Fed. Reg. 14111-01, 14112 (Mar. 24, 2010) (internal quotation marks omitted). Using this
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model, the State Department determines the total costs for a consular service provided, then
divides the total cost by the estimated number of users of that service. Id.B. Renunciation Fee Rulemaking 2010 through 2015
In 2010, the State Department issued a notice of proposed rulemaking, recommending a
$450 charge for administrative processing of a request for a CLN in renunciation cases under 8
U.S.C. § 1481(a)(5). Schedule of Fees for Consular Services, Department of State and Overseas
Embassies and Consulates (“2010 IFR”), 75 Fed. Reg. 6321-01, 6324 (Feb. 9, 2010).
Explaining its proposal to impose a renunciation fee for the first time, the State Department
stated that “documenting a U.S. citizen’s renunciation of citizenship is extremely costly,
requiring American consular officers overseas to spend substantial amounts of time to accept,
process, and adjudicate cases.” Id. The State Department further explained that the fee would
“help defray a small portion of the total cost to the U.S. Government of documenting the
renunciation of citizenship.” Id. It received almost 1,800 comments during the comment period,
some of which challenged the $450 Renunciation Fee as too high, primarily because the services
were previously provided at no charge. Schedule of Fees for Consular Services, Department of
State and Overseas Embassies and Consulates (“2012 Final Rule”), 77 Fed. Reg. 5177-01 (Feb 2,
2012). The State Department finalized the $450 fee in 2012. Id.In 2014, the State Department issued an interim final rule increasing the cost of the
Renunciation Fee to $2,350. Schedule of Fees for Consular Services, Department of State and
Overseas Embassies and Consulates—Visa and Citizenship Services Fee Changes (“2014 IFR”),
79 Fed. Reg. 51247-01, 51251 (Aug. 28, 2014). Defending the fee increase, the State
Department noted that an overseas time survey—“which collected extensive data on both
consular activities and the time spent by consular staff performing consular services at all
overseas locations”—allowed the CoSM to better identify and assign costs. Id. at 51249. The
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survey further revealed that demand for renunciation services had “increased dramatically,
consuming far more consular officer time and resources.” Id. at 51251. The State Department
concluded that, in contrast to its 2010 Interim Rule and 2012 Final Rule, there was “no public
benefit or other reason for setting [the renunciation processing] fee below cost.” Id.On August 25, 2015, the State Department finalized the $2,350 Renunciation Fee.
Schedule of Fees for Consular Services, Department of State and Overseas Embassies and
Consulates, 2015 Final Rule, 80 Fed. Reg. 51464–01, 51464 (Aug. 25, 2015). It noted that it had
received seventy comments, most of which expressed concern with the high cost of the fee.
Several commenters complained about the effect of recently passed bank and tax laws, including
the Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act (“FATCA”), affecting U.S. citizens living abroad. 2
Admin. R., ECF No. 21-11 at 3, 31, 42, 61, 65. Some commenters sought to be “grandfathered
in to the previous” $450 fee, and others took the position that renunciation should remain free of
charge. 2015 Final Rule, 80 Fed. Reg. at 51464–65. One-third of the comments suggested that
the fee increase was a “deterrent” that violated the “constitutional or human right” to expatriate.
Id. at 51465. The State Department responded that it had not “restricted or burdened the right of
expatriation,” that “the fee is not punitive and is unrelated to the IRS tax legislation,” and that
“the fee is a cost-based user fee for consular services.” Id. It went on to describe the
renunciation process in detail, the fact that the demand for renunciation services had increased
since 2010, and that the increase in demand was a drain on consular resources. Id.
In 2018, three years after publishing the 2015 Final Rule, the State Department finalized
a separate rule applying the $2,350 Renunciation Fee to any request for a CLN, regardless of the
2
See Compl. ¶¶ 8, 131 (describing FATCA as a data collection program enacted in 2010 that
requires foreign financial institutions to report to the IRS detailed information about the accounts
of U.S. citizens living abroad).
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type of citizenship expatriation at issue. Schedule of Fees for Consular Services, Department of
State and Overseas Embassies and Consulates, 83 Fed. Reg. 4423-02 (Jan. 31, 2018).
C. Plaintiff’s Claims
Plaintiffs assert that they “generally do not regard themselves as U.S. citizens,” in part
because they “never chose to be U.S. citizens.” Compl. ¶ 130. They contend that the “current
legal and regulatory regimes promulgated by the U.S. government have created a reality where it
simply is not worth it anymore” to hold U.S. citizenship. Id. ¶ 126.
Plaintiffs claim the $450 Renunciation Fee and subsequent $2,350 fee were enacted to
“discourage U.S. citizens abroad from exercising their fundamental right to expatriate.” Id. ¶
135. They also claim that the $450 Renunciation Fee was announced in the same year that
Congress passed FATCA because the primary purpose of the fee was not to “recoup
administrative costs,” but was instead “part and parcel of an overarching scheme the effect of
which was to stigmatize overseas Americans as tax cheats, while at the same time preventing
them from escaping the U.S. citizenship-based tax regime through renunciation of citizenship.”
Id.Plaintiffs complain that many of them have been unable to open foreign bank accounts,
have not been considered for workplace promotions, and have otherwise been burdened because
of FATCA. Id. ¶¶ 136–44. They contend that before FATCA was enacted, many of them “were
not even conscious of the fact that they held United States citizenship,” id. ¶ 142, and only began
pursuing expatriation after the Act’s passage. Some Plaintiffs seek to “renounce their U.S.
citizenship as an expression of their disenchantment of United States policies and political
ideology.” Id. ¶ 145. All of them seek to express their frustration with FATCA—which they
perceive as an act of discrimination by the U.S. government against Americans residing
abroad—by renouncing their citizenship. Id. ¶¶ 148–49. Still others seek to renounce their
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citizenship to express a “different political philosophy than that which underlies the American
form of government and American society.” Id. ¶ 150. Plaintiffs argue that the State
Department’s imposition of the $2,350 fee is a “heavy burden . . . forcing these Plaintiffs—
Americans by happenstance—to continue to associate themselves with a political body that they
feel no connection with and with which they vehemently disagree.” Id. ¶ 160.
II. LEGAL STANDARD
A. Motion to Dismiss
To survive a motion to dismiss pursuant to Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 12(b)(6) a
complaint must contain sufficient factual allegations to “state a claim to relief that is plausible on
its face,” Bell Atl. Corp. v. Twombly, 550 U.S. 544, 570 (2007), meaning “the plaintiff pleads
factual content that allows the court to draw the reasonable inference that the defendant is liable
for the misconduct alleged,” Ashcroft v. Iqbal, 556 U.S. 662, 678 (2009). “However, the court
need not accept inferences . . . [that] are unsupported by the facts set out in the complaint. Nor
must the court accept legal conclusions cast in the form of factual allegations.” Kowal v. MCI
Commc’ns Corp., 16 F.3d 1271, 1276 (D.C. Cir. 1994).
B. Summary Judgment
Summary judgment is appropriate if there is no genuine dispute as to any material fact
and the movant is entitled to judgment as a matter of law. Fed. R. Civ. P. 56(a); Celotex Corp. v.
Catrett, 477 U.S. 317, 325 (1986). “A fact is material if it ‘might affect the outcome of the suit
under the governing law,’ and a dispute about a material fact is genuine ‘if the evidence is such
that a reasonable jury could return a verdict for the nonmoving party.’” Steele v. Schafer, 535
F.3d 689, 692 (D.C. Cir. 2008) (quoting Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc., 477 U.S. 242, 248
(1986)).
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In an APA action, the court’s role at the summary judgment stage is to decide “as a
matter of law, whether the agency action is supported by the administrative record and otherwise
consistent with the APA standard of review.” Stuttering Found. of Am. v. Springer, 498 F. Supp.
2d 203, 207 (D.D.C.2007). “[T]he district judge sits as an appellate tribunal,” and the “[e]ntire
case on review is a question of law.” Am. Bioscience, Inc. v. Thompson, 269 F.3d 1077, 1083
(D.C. Cir. 2001) (internal quotation marks omitted). Because the court shall “have before it
neither more nor less information than did the agency when it made its decision,” its review is
generally limited to the administrative record, and it need not engage in “lengthy fact finding.”
Gilbert v. Wilson, 292 F. Supp. 3d 426, 433 (D.D.C. 2018) (internal quotation marks and
citations omitted).
III. ANALYSIS
A. APA Claims
a. Arbitrary or Capricious Claim
Under the APA, a reviewing court must “hold unlawful and set aside agency action,
findings, and conclusions found to be . . . arbitrary, capricious . . . or otherwise not in accordance
with law[.]” 5 U.S.C. § 706 (2)(A). The court’s review is “highly deferential” and begins with a
presumption that the agency’s actions are valid. Env’t. Def. Fund, Inc. v. Costle, 657 F.2d 275,
283 (D.C. Cir. 1981). The court is limited to reviewing the “administrative findings that were
made at the same time as the decision,” it may not “inquir[e] into the mental processes of
administrative decision makers” absent “a strong showing of bad faith or improper behavior,”
and it is “not empowered to substitute its judgment for that of the agency.” Citizens to Pres.
Overton Park, Inc. v. Volpe, 401 U.S. 402, 416, 420 (1971). Instead, the court must consider
only “whether the agency acted within the scope of its legal authority, whether the agency has
explained its decision, whether the facts on which the agency purports to have relied have some
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basis in the record, and whether the agency considered the relevant factors.” Fulbright v.
McHugh, 67 F. Supp. 3d 81, 89 (D.D.C. 2014) (quoting Fund for Animals v. Babbitt, 903 F.
Supp. 96, 105 (D.D.C. 1995)). The plaintiff bears the burden of establishing the invalidity of the
agency’s action. Fulbright, 67 F. Supp. 3d at 89.
Plaintiffs argue that the State Department’s 2015 Final Rule, increasing the renunciation
fee to $2,350, was arbitrary or capricious because the decision “(1) runs counter to the evidence
before the agency; (2) lacks any coherence and plausibility; and (3) fails to consider an important
aspect of the problem.” Pls.’ Cross-Mot. and Opp’n Mem., ECF No. 14 at 43. Plaintiffs further
argue that the State Department’s justification for the Renunciation Fee is unlawful under the
APA for six reasons. Pls.’ Cross-Mot. and Opp’n Mem. at 44. The court considers each of these
in turn and concludes that Plaintiffs have failed to meet their burden.
i. Time to Process and Adjudicate Applications
Based on their review of the administrative record and their own calculations, Plaintiffs
claim that “the average time spent per [renunciation] application [in fiscal year 2012] was
approximately one hour,” and that this calculation is “consistent with other publicly accessible
information” regarding non-renunciation relinquishment cases under 8 U.S.C. §1481(a)(1)-(4).
Pls.’ Cross-Mot. and Opp’n Mem. at 44 (citing Admin. R. 331–40). But as Defendants point out,
Plaintiffs’ calculations ignored thirteen identified activity drivers, including “[p]erform general
[Office of Consular Services] support activities,” “[p]erform internal controls and reconciliation
of controlled supplies,” and “fraud prevention and detection.” Admin. R. 331–40. And the 2015
Final Rule noted that “addition[al] . . . time [is] spent processing renunciations overseas and
domestically, [and] the full cost of processing renunciations includes a portion of overhead costs
that support consular operations overseas . . . .” 2015 Final Rule, 80 Fed. Reg. at 51466.
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Having considered the full administrative record, the court is not persuaded by Plaintiffs’
argument that the State Department’s 2015 Final Rule lacks “a rational connection between the
facts found and the choice [it] made.” Motor Vehicle Mfrs. Ass’n of U.S., Inc. v. State Farm Mut.
Auto. Ins. Co., 463 U.S. 29, 43 (1983). Moreover, the amount of time the State Department
spends processing non-renunciation cases under 8 U.S.C. §1481 (a)(1)-(4) is of lesser weight, as
those cases are processed under different statutory provisions and different State Department
regulations and procedures.
ii. Explanation for Cost Estimates
The crux of Plaintiffs’ argument here is that they simply do not believe, and do not
accept, the State Department’s cost calculations for providing renunciation services. See Pls.’
Cross-Mot. and Opp’n Mem. at 45–50 (arguing that $2,350 to process a single application “is
totally implausible and lacks any coherence”; the cost data set supplied by the government is
“completely incomprehensible”; “[t]hat it takes the government 23 person-hours to process a
single voluntary renunciation case defies credibility”; and the State Department’s identified
“indirect costs . . . have nothing to do with voluntary renunciation”). Plaintiffs maintain that
“[v]oluntary renunciation is a straightforward procedure, requiring the renunciant to complete
two simple forms and take an oath”; thus, they argue, Defendants have not “adequately
explain[ed]” the $2,350 cost, and the 2015 Final Rule should be set aside. Pls.’ Cross-Mot. and
Opp’n Mem. at 47–48 (internal citations omitted).
As the administrative record indicates, the State Department calculated the Renunciation
Fee by surveying relevant categories of costs, 2015 Final Rule, 80 Fed. Reg. at 51465, and the
actual cost was calculated using the CoSM Data Set, Admin. R. 190, ECF No. 21-6 at 1, in line
with guidance from the Office of Management and Budget, OMB Circular No. A-25; Pickard
Decl. ¶¶ 11–12, 18. Here again, the State Department provided a “rational connection between
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the facts found”—i.e., the cost model inputs—“and the choice made,” i.e., assessing the costs of
providing renunciation services at $2,350 per applicant. State Farm, 463 U.S. at 43.
iii. Renunciation Fee is Identical to the Fee for Non-Renunciation Relinquishment
Under § 1481(a)(1)–(4), a U.S. citizen abroad may relinquish their citizenship by
(1) becoming a naturalized citizen of a foreign state after the age of
eighteen; or
(2) making a formal declaration of allegiance to a foreign state or a political
subdivision thereof after the age of eighteen; or
(3) serving in the armed forces of a foreign state engaged in hostilities
against the United States, or serving as an officer in the armed forces of a
foreign state; or
(4) serving in the government of a foreign state after having become a
citizen of that state, after the age of eighteen; or serving in the government
of a foreign state in a position requiring an oath, affirmation, or declaration
of allegiance, after the age of eighteen.
These so-called non-renunciation relinquishment provisions apply when a U.S. citizen has not
explicitly renounced their U.S. citizenship but has indicated allegiance to a foreign nation.
Plaintiffs contend that the State Department failed to explain the fact that it charges the same fees
for voluntary renunciation, under 8 U.S.C. § 1481(a)(5), and non-renunciation relinquishment,
under 8 U.S.C. § 1481(a)(1)-(4). Pls.’ Cross-Mot. and Opp’n Mem. at 50.
Defendants make two arguments in response, Defs’ Opp’n and Reply, ECF No. 16 at 8–
9. First, the 2015 Final Rule, finalizing the $2,350 fee for renunciation under Section 1481(a)(5),
was promulgated before the 2018 Final Rule setting the fee for non-renunciation relinquishment.
Because an agency is required only to “offer[] an explanation for its decision” based on the
“evidence before the agency,” State Farm, 463 U.S. at 43, the State Department, in 2015, could
not explain actions it would take in 2018. Second, the fee assessed for non-renunciation
relinquishment has no bearing on the reasonableness of the fee for renunciation services, as the
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Renunciation Fee is based on the assessment of actual costs associated with providing that
service. See 31 U.S.C. § 9701; infra Section III. A. b. The court agrees with both of
Defendants’ arguments.
iv. Consular Services Requiring More Time per Application have Lower Fees than the
Renunciation Fee
Plaintiffs argue that because more time-consuming consular services charge lower fees,
the $2,350 Renunciation Fee is based on “something more than recoupment.” Pls.’ Cross-Mot.
and Opp’n Mem. at 51. This argument, too, is unpersuasive.
The administrative record indicates that the State Department used the same CoSM
methodology to set the Renunciation Fee that it uses to set fees for other consular services. See
2010 Supplemental NPRM, 75 Fed. Reg. at 14112. Plaintiffs have not proffered any reason why
the State Department should have utilized some other methodology in assessing the appropriate
fee for renunciation services. To the extent that Plaintiffs argue that the State Department
misapplied its CoSM methodology, that claim has been addressed. See supra Sections III, A. a.
i.–ii. Moreover, the State Department was not required to explain why the Renunciation Fee was
higher or lower than the fees for other consular services because those fees are not an “important
aspect” of determining the actual cost of renunciation services. State Farm, 463 U.S. at 43; see
supra Section III. A. a. iii.
v. Constitutional Dimension of Plaintiffs’ Expatriation Rights
Plaintiffs contend that the State Department “cavalierly wr[ote] off any constitutional
concerns by making the self-serving statement that ‘the [State] Department has not restricted or
burdened the right of expatriation.’” Pls.’ Cross-Mot. and Opp’n Mem. at 51–52 (citing 2015
Final Rule, 80 Fed. Reg. at 51464-01).
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The APA’s requirement that an agency “respond to ‘relevant’ and ‘significant’ public
comments” is not “particularly demanding.” Pub. Citizen, Inc. v. F.A.A., 988 F.2d 186, 197
(D.C. Cir. 1993) (internal citation omitted). The D.C. Circuit has explained that “the agency is
not required to discuss every item of fact or opinion included in the submissions made to it in
informal rulemaking. Instead, the agency’s response to public comments need only enable us to
see what major issues of policy were ventilated and why the agency reacted to them as it did.”
Id. (internal quotation marks and citations omitted). Accordingly, an agency must respond to
“major substantive comments.” Sierra Club v. E.P.A., 863 F.3d 834, 838 (D.C. Cir. 2017)
(citing Pub. Citizen, Inc., 988 F.2d at 197).
Of the comments the State Department received, only one mentioned the Constitution:
“It is every American’s constitutional right to renounce his citizenship,” and the $2350 fee
“effectively denies” that right. Admin. R. at 453. The State Department acknowledged the
comment and responded that it “has not restricted or burdened the right of expatriation” as
expressed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Expatriation Act of 1868. 2015
Final Rule, 80 Fed. Reg. at 51465. Given that the single comment received was not a “major
substantive comment[]” and “merely referenced” the Constitution, the State Department’s
response—considering the commenter’s objections—satisfied its APA obligation. Env’t Def.
Fund v. E.PA., 922 F.3d 446, 458 (D.C. Cir. 2019) (quoting Sierra Club v. E.P.A., 863 F.3d 834,
838 (D.C. Cir. 2017)).
vi. The Renunciation Fee is Inconsistent with Past Agency Practice
Finally, Plaintiffs argue that the State Department failed to justify its departure from past
agency practice in 2010, when “after 239 years, it decided to begin charging for voluntary
renunciation.” Pls.’ Cross-Mot. and Opp’n Mem. at 52. Plaintiffs assert that the agency did so
yet again in 2014 and 2015 when it increased the Renunciation Fee from $450 to $2,350 without
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explaining why considerations which formerly resulted in setting the fee below cost to the
government were no longer relevant. See id.“Agencies are free to change their existing policies as long as they provide a reasoned
explanation for the change.” Encino Motorcars, LLC v. Navarro, 579 U.S. 211, 221 (2016). An
agency provides a reasoned explanation by “at least displaying awareness that it is changing
position and showing that there are good reasons for the new policy.” Gentiva Health Servs.,
Inc. v. Becerra, 31 F.4th 766, 780 (D.C. Cir. 2022) (quoting F.C.C. v. Fox Television Stations,
Inc., 5556 U.S. 502, 515 (2009)) (internal quotation marks and brackets omitted). In its 2015
Final Rule, the State Department acknowledged its change in position by stating that the
Renunciation Fee was being “raise[d to] reflect the full cost of the service.” 80 Fed. Reg. at
51465. It explained that the fee was increasing because (1) “the number of people requesting the
renunciation service ha[d] risen dramatically, . . . materially increasing the resources devoted to
providing the service”; and (2) “improvements to the CoSM made the cost of the renunciation
service more apparent.” 2015 Final Rule, 80 Fed. Reg. at 51465. That reasoned explanation was
sufficient to explain the change in the fee.
b. Not in Accordance with Law and in Excess of Statutory Jurisdiction Claims
Plaintiffs claim the 2015 Final Rule is “not in accordance with the law” and in “excess of
statutory jurisdiction,” in violation of 5 U.S.C. §§ 706(2)(A), (C), because the Renunciation Fee
violates the IOAA. Compl. ¶¶ 200, 205–06. They further argue that the 2015 Final Rule is
“clearly not intended to cover the costs of the services rendered,” and “the imposition and
increase in the fee exceed the Congressional authorization” of the IOAA, “amount[ing] to an
improper tax.” Id. ¶ 206. Defendants move for summary judgment on both claims, arguing that
the State Department fully complied with the demands of the IOAA. Defs.’ Mem. in Supp. of
Mot. at 29–31. In response, Plaintiffs merely reference—in a footnote—their not in accordance
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with law claim, stating that it is “coterminous” with their arbitrary and capricious claim and
“need not be further expounded upon,” Pls.’ Cross-Mot. and Opp’n Mem. at 41 n. 45, and they
do not address Defendants’ arguments regarding their in excess of statutory jurisdiction claim
under § 706(2)(C). Because Plaintiffs have made substantively the same claim under both
statutory provisions, the court addresses them together.
Under the IOAA, an agency may “prescribe regulations establishing the charge for a
service or thing of value provided by the agency.” 31 U.S.C. § 9701(b). The IOAA requires that
“each service or thing of value provided by an agency . . . to a person . . . is . . . self-sustaining to
the extent possible.” 31 U.S.C. § 9701(a). It further mandates that any charges be “(1) fair; and
(2) based on—(A) the costs to the Government; (B) the value of the service or thing to the
recipient; (C) public policy or interest served; and (D) other relevant facts.” 31 U.S.C. §
9701(b)(1)-(2).
When reviewing an agency fee promulgated pursuant to the IOAA, the court need only
assess whether there is a “sufficient nexus between the agency service for which the fee is
charged and the individuals who are assessed [the fee].” Seafarers Int’l Union of N. Am. v. U.S.
Coast Guard, 81 F.3d 179, 182 (D.C. Cir. 1996). “An agency may not charge more than the
reasonable cost it incurs to provide a service, or the value of the service to the recipient,
whichever is less.” Engine Mfrs. Ass’n v. E.P.A., 20 F.3d 1177, 1180 (D.C. Cir. 1994) (citing
Nat’l Cable Television Ass’n v. F.C.C., 554 F.2d 1094, 1104–07 (D.C. Cir. 1976)). The State
Department asserts, and the administrative record does not refute, that it has endeavored to
charge no more than its cost for providing renunciation services, 2015 Final Rule, 80 Fed. Reg.
at 51465; see also supra Section III. A. a. Consequently, the court finds a “sufficient nexus”
between renunciation services provided and CLN applicants, Seafarers Int’l, 81 F.3d at 182, and
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that the 2015 Final Rule is both in accordance with the law and not in excess of the State
Department’s statutory jurisdiction.
c. Unsupported by Substantial Evidence
Plaintiffs claim the 2015 Final Rule is unsupported by substantial evidence, in violation
of 5 U.S.C. § 706(2)(E), Compl. ¶ 203, and Defendants move to dismiss under Federal Rule of
Civil Procedure 12(b)(6), arguing that the “standard applies only to actions under the APA that
challenge an agency adjudication.” Defs.’ Mem. in Supp. of Mot. at 29. Because Plaintiffs did
not respond to Defendants’ arguments—with which the court agrees—the court addresses this
claim only briefly.
Under 5 U.S.C. § 706(2)(E), a reviewing court must “hold unlawful and set aside agency
action, findings, and conclusions found to be . . . unsupported by substantial evidence in a case
subject to sections 556 and 557 of [the APA] or otherwise reviewed on the record of an agency
hearing provided by statute.” 5 U.S.C. § 706(2)(E). Sections 556 and 557 govern agency
adjudicatory hearings where the agency considers evidence in the record. 5 U.S.C. §§ 556, 557.
“In other words, the substantial evidence standard applies only to agency findings of fact made
after a hearing, rather than the rulemaking process that is at issue in this case.” Select Specialty
Hosp.-Akron, LLC v. Sebelius, 820 F. Supp. 2d 13, 27 (D.D.C. 2011). Because the 2015 Final
Rule was promulgated pursuant to notice and comment rulemaking, the substantial evidence test
is inapplicable, and Plaintiffs’ claim fails as a matter of law.
d. Contrary to a Constitutional Right
Finally, Plaintiffs argue that the State Department’s 2015 Final Rule violated the APA
because it is “contrary to . . . [a] constitutional right,” 5 U.S.C. §706(2)(B), guaranteed by the
Fifth, First, and Eighth Amendments. Compl. ¶¶ 200, 204; Pls.’ Cross-Mot. and Opp’n Mem. at
3–29. The court will assess this claim as part of its review of Plaintiffs’ constitutional claims.
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See Rydeen v. Quigg, 748 F.Supp. 900, 905 (D.D.C. 1990), aff’d mem., 937 F.2d 623 (Fed. Cir.
1991) (holding that a court “has the authority to examine and rule on any actions of a federal
agency that allegedly violate the Constitution,” apart from the power of review granted by the
APA).
B. Constitutional Claims
In contrast to the deference a court must give agency actions under APA review, courts
review de novo constitutional challenges to agency actions. Lead Indus. Ass’n, Inc. v. E.P.A.,
647 F.2d 1130, 1173–74 (D.C. Cir. 1980) (holding that “a reviewing court owes no deference to
the agency’s pronouncement on a constitutional question”).
a. Fifth Amendment
The Fifth Amendment Due Process Clause declares that “[n]o person shall be . . .
deprived of . . . liberty . . . without due process of law,” U.S. Const., amend. V, and “provides
heightened protection against government interference with certain fundamental rights and
liberty interests,” Washington v. Glucksberg, 521 U.S. 702, 720 (1997). To be considered a
fundamental right under the Due Process Clause (1) the asserted right must be “deeply rooted in
this Nation’s history and tradition, and implicit in the concept of ordered liberty, such that
neither liberty nor justice would exist if [it] were sacrificed[,]” and (2) there must be “a careful
description of the asserted fundamental liberty interest.” Glucksberg, 521 U.S. at 721.
Government regulations restricting a “fundamental right” are “subjected to strict scrutiny[,]” and
regulations restricting rights which are “not fundamental . . . [are] subject only to rational basis
scrutiny.” Abigail All. for Better Access to Dev. Drugs v. von Eschenbach, 495 F.3d 695, 701,
712 (D.C. Cir. 2007). “[A]ny government impingement on a substantive fundamental right . . .
[is] measured under a strict scrutiny standard and would be justified only if the infringement is
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narrowly tailored to serve a compelling state interest.” Hutchins v. D.C., 188 F.3d 531, 536
(D.C. Cir. 1999).
Plaintiffs argue that “the right to voluntarily renounce American citizenship is a
fundamental right” protected by the Due Process Clause. Pls.’ Cross-Mot. and Opp’n Mem. at
14. Plaintiffs cite no authority supporting this position, and this Circuit has acknowledged that
neither the Supreme Court nor this Circuit has found that renunciation is a fundamental right.
See Kwok Sze v. Johnson, 172 F. Supp. 3d 112, 121 (D.D.C. 2016), aff’d sub nom. Kwok Sze v.
Kelly, No. 16-5090, 2017 WL 2332592 (D.C. Cir. Feb. 21, 2017) (citing Afroyim v. Rusk, 387
U.S. 253, 268 (1967)) (“[T]he Supreme Court has not recognized that the right to abandon one’s
citizenship constitutes a constitutional right[,]” and “[t]he D.C. Circuit has not addressed the
question” either.). At oral argument, Plaintiffs’ counsel acknowledged that this court would be
the first to recognize such a constitutional right but noted in their brief that there are cases in
which the Supreme Court has referenced a statutory right to expatriate, without reference to the
Due Process Clause. First, Plaintiffs direct the court to Savorgnan v. United States, 338 U.S.
491, 498 n.11 (1950), in which the Supreme Court stated in a footnote that the language of the
Expatriation Act is “broad enough to cover, and does cover, the corresponding natural and
inherent right of American citizens to expatriate themselves.” Pls.’ Cross-Mot. and Opp’n Mem.
at 25. Second, Plaintiffs rely on United States v. Wong Kim Ark, 169 U.S. 649, 704 (1898), in
which the Supreme Court noted that “the right of expatriation . . . must be considered . . . a part
of the fundamental law of the United States.” Pls.’ Cross-Mot. and Opp’n Mem. at 25. But
although the Supreme Court has recognized “a constitutional right to remain a citizen,” Afroyim,
387 U.S. at 268, it has recognized no such right to voluntarily expatriate, and this court will not
decide that question as a matter of first impression, see Collins v. City of Harker Heights, Tex.,
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503 U.S. 115, 125, (1992) (“The Court has always been reluctant to expand the concept of
substantive due process . . . The doctrine of judicial self-restraint requires [courts] to exercise the
utmost care whenever . . . asked to break new ground in this field.”).
Moreover, even assuming arguendo that the substantive Due Process Clause does protect
the right to voluntary renunciation, the State Department’s Renunciation Fee would not violate
that right. Even under a strict scrutiny analysis, the court is mindful of decisions in this Circuit
holding that certain regulatory or statutory restrictions on the right to expatriate are permissible.
In Lozada Colon v. U.S. Dep’t of State, 2 F. Supp. 2d 43 (D.D.C. 1998), aff’d, 170 F.3d 191(D.C. Cir. 1999), the district court held that “even if one were to concede Plaintiff’s argument
that an individual has a fundamental right to expatriate, the Secretary of State still would have
the discretion to determine whether an individual has adequately renounced affiliation with the
United States so as to trigger that right.” Id. at 45. More recently in Farrell v. Pompeo, the
district court “reject[ed] the plaintiff’s claim that the [State Department’s] denial of his
application for a [CLN] was contrary to [an assumed] constitutional right to expatriate.” 424 F.
Supp. 3d 1, 24 (D.D.C. 2019), rev’d and remanded sub nom. on other grounds, Farrell v.
Blinken, 4 F.4th 124 (D.C. Cir. 2021). And in other constitutional contexts, the Supreme Court
has ruled that administrative fees—recouping the cost for facilitating the exercise of a right—do
not violate a constitutional right. See Cox v. New Hampshire, 312 U.S. 569, 571, 577 (1941)
(holding that charging a reasonable fee to obtain a “special license” for “a parade or procession
upon any public street” is not “contrary to the Constitution.”). Given that the Renunciation Fee
only recoups the resources expended by the government, the court finds that that the $2,350 fee
for processing a CLN is narrowly tailored to achieve the government’s compelling interest.
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Having found that the right to voluntarily expatriate is not a fundamental right protected
by the Fifth Amendment, the court applies the rational basis test, and finds the government’s
interest in recouping expenses for administering renunciation services is “unquestionably
important and legitimate” and that the Renunciation Fee is “reasonably related to their promotion
and protection.” Glucksberg, 521 U.S. at 735. The Renunciation Fee is analogous to the fee the
U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (“USCIS”) charges non-citizens to process their N-
400 application for naturalization. See 8 C.F.R. § 106.2(b)(3). An individual applying to
become a naturalized U.S. citizen seeks the pantheon of rights granted to U.S. citizens by the
Constitution, and the court is unaware of any case holding that the citizenship application fee
fails the rational basis test. Consequently, Plaintiffs’ motion for summary judgment on this
claim will be denied, and Defendant’s motion for summary judgment will be granted.
b. First Amendment
Both parties have moved for summary judgment on Plaintiffs’ First Amendment claim,
which contends that renouncing one’s citizenship is protected speech under the First Amendment
and the Renunciation Fee is an unconstitutional content-based restriction on speech. Compl. ¶¶
172–88.
The Constitution provides that “Congress shall make no law . . . abridging the freedom of
speech . . . .” U.S. Const., amend. I. A facially content-based restriction on speech is
“presumptively unconstitutional and may be justified only if the government proves that [it is]
narrowly tailored to serve [a] compelling state interest.” Reed v. Town of Gilbert, Ariz., 576 U.S.
155, 163 (2015). A restriction is content-based when it “applies to particular speech because of
the topic discussed or the idea or message expressed.” Id. Moreover, a restriction that is not
content-based on its face may nevertheless be subject to strict scrutiny if it “cannot be ‘justified
without reference to the content of the regulated speech,’” or was “adopted by the government
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‘because of disagreement with the message the speech conveys[.]’” Id. at 164 (quoting Ward v.
Rock Against Racism, 491 U.S. 781, 791 (1989)) (internal quotation marks and brackets
omitted). On the other hand, speech restrictions that are content neutral are subject to the test in
United States v, O’Brien, 391 U.S. 367, 377 (1968), which held that a court must examine
whether (1) the government regulation is “within the constitutional power of the Government” to
enact; (2) the regulation “furthers an important or substantial governmental interest”; (3) “the
government interest is unrelated to the suppression of free expression”; and (4) the restriction is
“no greater than is essential to the furtherance” of the government interest.
Plaintiffs argue that the “context of expatriation, the highly expressive nature, historical
pedigree, the legal consequence bestowed upon the renunciant, and the uniqueness of voluntary
expatriation suggest that the imposition” of a fee “is necessarily content-based.” Pls.’ Cross-
Mot. and Opp’n Mem. at 38. However, this argument ignores the fact that the Renunciation Fee
is imposed regardless of the reason for seeking expatriation or the content of any message an
individual seeking to renunciate may wish to convey. See Pursuing Am.’s Greatness v. Fed.
Election Comm’n, 831 F.3d 500, 509 (D.C. Cir. 2016) (holding that a Federal Election
Commission (“FEC”) rule prohibiting use of candidates’ names in titles of their websites and
social media pages was a “content-based discrimination pure and simple” because the FEC could
not determine whether its rule applied without “examin[ing] the content” of the website (internal
quotation marks and citations omitted)).
While the act of renouncing one’s citizenship may be “speech” within the meaning of the
First Amendment, the court does not find that Renunciation Fee is a content-based restriction on
free speech that is subject to strict scrutiny.
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Nothing in the record indicates that the State Department adopted the $450 or $2,350
renunciation fees “because of the topic” of renouncing citizenship, or to impede upon the
“message expressed.” Reed, 576 U.S. at 163. Nor is it impossible to “justif[y]” the
Renunciation Fees “without reference to” the act of renunciation. Id. at 164. Rather, the State
Department justified the Renunciation Fees in 2010, 2012, 2014, and 2015 as a user payment to
cover the administrative cost of processing and adjudicating renunciation-based requests for a
CLN. See 2010 IFR, 75 Fed. Reg. at 36525; 2012 Final Rule, 77 Fed. Reg. at 5177; 2014 IFR,
79 Fed. Reg. at 51250–51; 2015 Final Rule, 80 Fed. Reg. at 51465. The fee does not prevent a
citizen from expressing their desire to renounce their citizenship or their reasons for doing so.
Regardless of their reasons for seeking to renounce their U.S. citizenship, all Plaintiffs—who
have a variety of reasons, including political, for seeking renunciation—are charged the same
fee. The challenged regulation does not “draw[] distinctions based on the message a speaker
conveys.” Reed, 576 U.S. at 163.
Because the court finds that the State Department’s Renunciation Fee is a content-neutral
restriction on speech, the O’Brien test applies. The first factor of that test asks whether the
“government regulation is . . . within [its] constitutional power.” O’Brien, 391 U.S. at 377.
Plaintiffs do not assert, and the court is unaware of any authority holding that the State
Department lacks authority, delegated by Congress to the Executive Branch, to impose fees for
services provided. The second factor, whether the regulation “furthers an important or
substantial government interest,” 391 U.S. at 377, is similarly uncontested; the United States
undoubtedly has a substantial government interest in imposing a fee to cover the administrative
costs of a service, Seafarers Int’l, 81 F.3d at 183 (explaining that several Supreme Court
decisions “broadly permit user fees in connection with the provision of specific services”). As
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noted above, the Renunciation Fee also satisfies O’Brien’s third factor, that the “governmental
interest is unrelated to the suppression of free expression.” 391 U.S. at 377. And fourth, “the
restriction is no greater than is essential,” 391 U.S. at 377, because the record supports the State
Department’s assertion that the $2,350 Renunciation Fee seeks to recoup only the cost of
providing renunciation services. See Cox, 312 U.S. 569, 570–71, 576–77 (1941) (holding that a
charging a “reasonable” licensing fee “to parade or procession upon any public street” was not
“contrary to the Constitution” where the fee charged was limited to recouping costs for the
“administration of the [speech] act”). Plaintiffs’ argument that the Renunciation Fee fails the
fourth factor of the O’Brien test because the State Department could have chosen to implement
alternative cost recouping measures, Pls.’ Cross-Mot. and Opp’n Mem. at 39, is unavailing in
light of the Supreme Court’s holding that a regulation is not “invalid simply because there is
some imaginable alternative that might be less burdensome on speech,” United States v.
Albertini, 472 U.S. 675, 689 (1985).
c. Eighth Amendment
Defendants have moved, under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 12(b)(6) to dismiss
Plaintiffs’ Eighth Amendment Claim, or, in the alternative, under Rule 56 for summary
judgment.
The Eighth Amendment to the Constitution provides that “[e]xcessive bail shall not be
required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.” U.S. Const.
amend. VIII. For Eighth Amendment purposes, a “fine” is “understood to mean a payment to a
sovereign as punishment for some offense,” Browning-Ferris Indus. of Vermont, Inc. v. Kelco
Disposal, Inc., 492 U.S. 257, 265 (1989), and “thus limits the government’s power to extract
payments, whether in cash or in kind, as punishment . . . .” Austin v. United States, 509 U.S.
602, 609–10 (1993) (internal quotation marks and citation omitted). In Austin, the Supreme
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Court explained “that civil proceedings may advance punitive as well as remedial goals,” and so
the operative question is whether the payment “is punishment.” Austin, 509 U.S. at 610.
Because “sanctions frequently serve more than one purpose,” a court must “determine that [the
sanctions] can only be explained as serving in part to punish.” Id. Thus, a court’s responsibility
in assessing an Excessive Fines Clause claim is twofold: “(1) determin[e] whether the
government extracted payments for the purpose of punishment; and (2) assess[] whether the
extraction was excessive.” United States v. Bikundi, 926 F.3d 761, 795 (D.C. Cir. 2019). “The
first step determines whether the Excessive Fines Clause applies, and the second determines if
the Clause was violated.” Id.The administrative record is devoid of any evidence supporting Plaintiffs’ contention that
the State Department’s Renunciation fees “can only be explained as serving in part to punish.”
Austin, 509 U.S. at 610. The Supreme Court has never held that a fee, let alone an administrative
fee such as the one at issue here, constitutes a punishment, falling within the ambit of the
Excessive Fines Clause. Instead, the Court has found that several types of civil penalties,
including in rem civil forfeitures and criminal forfeiture of assets or currency, constitute fines
under the Eighth Amendment. See id. at 619–22 (holding that in rem civil forfeitures under 21
U.S.C. §§ 881(a)(4) and (a)(7) are subject to the Eight Amendment’s Excessive Fines Clause );
Alexander v. United States, 509 U.S. 544, 558–59 (1993) (holding that forfeiture of assets and
money, as a penalty for violating the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act,
constituted a fine for purposes of the Eighth Amendment’s Excessive Fines Clause); United
States v. Bajakajian, 524 U.S. 321, 328 (1998) (holding that forfeiture of currency for violating
31 U.S.C. § 5316(a)(1)(A)—a statute requiring persons to report when transporting more than
$10,000 outside of the United States—constitutes a fine within the meaning of the Excessive
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Fines Clause); see also 172 A.L.R. Fed. 389 (originally published in 2001, updated weekly)
(collecting Supreme Court cases determining that certain civil penalties constitute a “fine” under
the Eighth Amendment). Here, the administrative record supports Defendants’ contention that
the State Department imposed a fee to recoup the cost of a service, and not—as Plaintiffs
assert—to punish overseas Americans as “tax cheats and evaders deserving of punishment or
deterrence.” Pls.’ Cross-Mot. and Opp’n Mem. at 41.
Likewise, Plaintiffs’ argument that the “timing and juxtaposition of FATCA raise a
material issue as to the true motive behind the creation and increase of the Renunciation Fee,”
Pls.’ Cross-Mot. and Opp’n Mem. 41–42, finds no support in the record. Absent a “strong
showing of bad faith or improper behavior,” courts are limited to evaluating an agency’s
contemporaneous explanation for rulemaking and may not further inquire into “the mental
processes of administrative decision makers.” Dep’t of Com. v. New York, 139 S. Ct. 2551,
2573–74 (2019) (omitting internal citations and quotation marks). While Plaintiffs clearly
disagree with the State Department’s stated reasons for the Renunciation Fee, the administrative
record does not provide any basis for this court to find that the State Department acted in bad
faith or engaged in improper behavior. Consequently, the court finds, on the record before it,
that the Renunciation Fees, as finalized in 2012 and 2015, are not fines under the Eighth
Amendment and will therefore grant Defendants’ motion for summary judgment as to Plaintiffs’
Eighth Amendment claim.
C. Customary International Law Claim
Defendants have moved to dismiss Plaintiffs’ customary international law claim pursuant
to Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 12(b)(6), and, in the alternative, for summary judgment.
Plaintiffs oppose Defendants’ motion to dismiss and have cross-moved for summary judgment.
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The Supreme Court long ago held that “an act of Congress ought never to be construed to
violate the law of nations if any other possible construction remains.” Murray v. Schooner
Charming Betsy, The, 6 U.S. 64, 118 (1804); see also Sampson v. Fed. Republic of Germany,
250 F.3d 1145, 1152 (7th Cir. 2001) (“[T]he Charming Betsy canon directs courts to construe
ambiguous statutes to avoid conflicts with international law”). Customary international law is
the “general and consistent practice of states followed by them from a sense of legal obligation.”
Usoyan v. Republic of Turkey, 6 F.4th 31, 40 (D.C. Cir. 2021) (quoting Restatement (Third) of
the Foreign Relations Law of the United States § 102(2) (Am. L. Inst. 1987)). To determine the
existence of customary international law, a court looks to “obvious sources like treaties and
legislative acts,” “the general usage and practice of nations and judicial decisions recognizing
and enforcing that law.” Usoyan, 6 F.4th at 41 (internal quotations omitted).
Before the court can engage in the Charming Betsy statutory construction analysis, it
must first find that Plaintiffs have established the existence of a customary international law with
which the renunciation provision must comport. In their Complaint, Plaintiffs allege that
“[v]oluntary expatriation is recognized as a right under customary international law,” and a
$2,350 Renunciation Fee that “preconditions Plaintiffs’ right to expatriate on the payment of an
exorbitant fee . . . fails to comport with customary international law.” Compl. ¶ 209, 217 (citing
Note, The Right of Nonrepatriation of Prisoners of War, 83 YALE L.J. 358, 373 (1973)). They
further argue that only the imposition of a “nominal modest [renunciation] fee” would comport
with customary international law. Id. ¶ 15. In other words, Plaintiffs seek to have the court
recognize a “consistent practice of states,” Republic of Turkey, 6 F.4th at 40, to permit citizens to
voluntarily expatriate at no or very little charge.
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Plaintiffs have not identified any international treaties, statutes, or court decisions
declaring that the right to voluntarily expatriate must be unencumbered by no more than a
nominal fee. To the contrary, Plaintiffs have identified at least nine countries other than the U.S.
that charge a renunciation fee. See Pls.’ Selective List of Renunciation Fees, ECF No. 14-3.
Even if it is true that the U.S. has not historically charged a fee for voluntary expatriation and
that it now charges the highest such fee of any country, those facts are still not sufficient to
establish that the U.S.’s former practice of not charging a fee flows “from a sense of legal
obligation.” Republic of Turkey, 6 F.4th at 40. Indeed, Plaintiffs conceded at oral argument that
the demand for CLNs has increased, and the State Department has explained that it had not
previously set a renunciation fee because it was difficult to “accurately” assess the cost of
renunciation. Compl. ¶ 116 (citing 80 Fed. Reg. 51465 (Aug. 25, 2015)). Thus, there is no basis
upon which to find that the Executive Branch believed it was legally obligated to offer
renunciation services for free. Having failed to show the existence of customary international
law establishing that citizenship renunciation must be nearly free of charge, Plaintiffs cannot
sustain their customary international law claim. See United States v. Corey, 232 F.3d 1166, 1179
(9th Cir. 2000) (“[T]he Charming Betsy rule does not apply because there is no conflict with
international law to avoid”). Consequently, the court need not address Plaintiffs’ cross motion
for summary judgment on this claim, and Defendants’ motion for summary judgement will be
granted.
IV. CONCLUSION
The court will therefore GRANT Defendants’ Partial Motion to Dismiss and Partial
Motion for Summary Judgment: ECF No. 11.
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Date: February 10, 2023
Tanya S. Chutkan
TANYA S. CHUTKAN
United States District Judge
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