Carolina Mulching Co, L.L.C. v. Raleigh Wilmington Investors II

IN THE COURT OF APPEALS OF NORTH CAROLINA
No. COA20-47
Filed: 7 July 2020
Brunswick County, No. 18 CVD 1793
CAROLINA MULCHING CO. LLC, Plaintiff,
v.
RALEIGH-WILMINGTON INVESTORS II, LLC; SHALIMAR CONSTRUCTION,
INC., Defendants.
Appeal by Defendants from judgment entered 21 May 2019 by Judge C. Ashley
Gore in Brunswick County District Court. Heard in the Court of Appeals 27 May
2020.
Law Offices of Timothy Dugan, by Timothy Dugan, for the Plaintiff-Appellee.
Hodges Coxe & Potter, LLP, by Bradley A. Coxe, for the Defendant-Appellant.
BROOK, Judge.
Shalimar Construction, Inc. (“Defendant” or “Defendant Shalimar”) appeals
from the trial court’s judgment after a bench trial finding in favor of Carolina
Mulching Co. LLC (“Plaintiff”). On appeal, Defendant argues that the trial court’s
conclusion that Plaintiff satisfactorily completed the terms of a contract is not
supported by the findings of fact, and that we must reverse the trial court’s order.
For the following reasons, we agree with Defendant.
CAROLINA MULCHING CO. LLC V. SHALIMAR CONSTRUCTION, INC.
Opinion of the Court
I. Background
A. Factual Background
Defendant is a construction company that does site work and land development
for large construction projects. In 2018, Raleigh-Wilmington Investors II, LLC,
(“Investors”) entered into a contract with Defendant to clear approximately 27 acres
of land in Navassa, North Carolina (“the Lena Springs Project”). Defendant’s work
consisted of clearing and grading the land, building roads, installing water, sewer,
and storm drains, and excavating retention ponds over an area of 8.43 acres.
Defendant subcontracted the initial clearing of the trees and brush to Plaintiff. After
reviewing the plans and visiting the job site, Plaintiff’s agent Shane Stevenson
prepared a proposal. The proposal read as follows: “Service—Clearing overgrown
land. Mulching trees and brush up to 6”-8” in diameter in the 8.5 acres of land for
development on Main Street in Navassa, NC. Cost $15,000.00.” The proposal was
directly incorporated into the contract, which the parties signed.
Cameron Hall worked for Plaintiff in performing the mulching work. Plaintiff
worked on the Lena Springs Project from 12 to 23 March 2018. Defendant’s president
and agent David Edwards was present on the job site during the days Mr. Hall was
working. Mr. Hall and Defendant discussed Plaintiff’s job performance while working
together, and Defendant told Mr. Hall that Defendant would hire a logging company
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Opinion of the Court
to remove the large trees once Plaintiff finished mulching the small trees on the
property.
After clearing 8.5 acres and leaving the job site, Plaintiff sent Defendant an
invoice for $15,000.00, but Defendant did not pay Plaintiff. On 13 April 2018,
Defendant sent a notice to Plaintiff to complete the Lena Springs Project. At trial,
Mr. Edwards testified that Plaintiff did not complete work specified in the contract
because Plaintiff left behind trees under eight inches in diameter. Mr. Stevenson,
however, testified that he and Mr. Hall completed the work specified in the contract
and that the remaining trees were larger than eight inches in diameter and outside
their scope of work. On 18 July 2018, Defendant sent Plaintiff a change order revising
the amount due to $2,650.00 for 1.5 acres cleared by Plaintiff and refusing to pay for
the remainder of the contract, claiming that Plaintiff had not fulfilled its obligations.
Defendant hired D&L Timber to cut the remaining trees on the 8.5 acres of the Lena
Springs Project.
B. Procedural History
Plaintiff filed a complaint on 26 September 2018 asserting claims of breach of
contract and unjust enrichment against Defendant Shalimar and requesting
enforcement of a lien pursuant to Chapter 44A of the North Carolina General
Statutes against Investors. Defendant Shalimar responded on 27 November 2018
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Opinion of the Court
with an answer and a counterclaim for breach of contract against Plaintiff. Plaintiff
voluntarily dismissed all claims against Investors prior to trial.
The parties waived trial by jury, and the case was tried before the Honorable
C. Ashley Gore at the 2 May 2019 session of the Civil District Court for Brunswick
County. Plaintiff presented evidence that it mulched all the trees under eight inches
in diameter, and Defendant presented evidence that Plaintiff was measuring the
trees by circumference instead of diameter, resulting in Plaintiff’s leaving behind
trees that fell within the scope of the contract.
The trial court entered an order at the conclusion of the trial on 21 May 2019
in favor of Plaintiff, including the following pertinent findings of fact:
7. In March 2018, Defendant contacted Plaintiff about
mulching 8.5 acres of the Lena Springs Project. Plaintiff
sent Defendant a proposal for $15,000.00, and Defendant
sent Plaintiff a contract with Plaintiff’s attached proposal.
8. The specific terms of the proposal included the type
of service Plaintiff would complete, and the exact price
Defendant would pay. The service provided was “[c]learing
overgrown land[ and m]ulching trees and brush up to 6”-
8” in diameter in the 8.5 acres of land for . . . [the Lena
Springs Project]. The cost was “$15,000.00.”
9. The industry standard of clearing trees and
underbrush is measured by the diameter, not
circumference, of trees.
...
11. The parties signed the contract and Plaintiff began
working on the Lena Springs Project on March 12, 2018.
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Opinion of the Court
12. Plaintiff worked on the job site until on or about
March 23, 2018. Defendant was also present on the job site
during the days Plaintiff was working, but he was
performing his own duties as General Contractor.
13. Plaintiff and Defendant discussed Plaintiff’s job
performance while working together[,] and Defendant
seemed pleased with Plaintiff’s progress. Defendant told
Plaintiff he would have to hire a logging company to
remove the large trees once Plaintiff finished mulching the
property.
14. Plaintiff mulched the 8.5 acres of the Lena Springs
Project; however, a controversy arose over the trees left
standing after Plaintiff left the job site.
15. The contract between the parties specified Plaintiff
would mulch all trees 6”-8” in diameter or less. Defendant
contends the trees left standing on the property after
Plaintiff left were smaller than 8” in diameter and should
have been cleared by Plaintiff. Defendant was only
satisfied with 1.5 acres of the 8.5 acre job.
16. After leaving the job site, Plaintiff sent Defendant
an invoice for the $15,000.00, but Defendant did not pay
any money to Plaintiff.
17. On April 13, 2018, Defendant sent a notice to
Plaintiff to complete the Lena Springs Project, and on July
18, 2018, Defendant sent Plaintiff a Change Order.
18. The Change Order revised the amount Defendant
was to pay Plaintiff under the original contract. The
parties originally agreed to the amount of $15,000.00 for
the job, and the Change Order revised that amount to
$2,650.00. This amount of pay was for the 1.5 acres that
was completely cleared by Plaintiff.
19. Several months later, Defendant hired D&L Logging
to clear the rest of the trees left on the Lena Springs
Project. The logging company hauled off approximately 13
loads of wood from the project.
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Opinion of the Court
20. Plaintiff continued to demand Defendant pay the
$15,000.00 for the services rendered, and Defendant
refused to pay any money.
The order contained the following conclusions of law:
1. This Court has jurisdiction over the parties and the
subject matter of this action.
2. Plaintiff and Defendant entered into a written
contract for Plaintiff’s tree mulching services. There was a
meeting of the minds between the two parties when they
entered into the essential terms of the written contract.
The Defendant even included Plaintiff’s proposal in the
body of the contract.
3. Both parties signed the written contract, and the
terms of the contract were clear and unambiguous;
Plaintiff would provide the mulching services for the Lena
Springs Project[,] and Defendant would pay Plaintiff
$15,000.00. Plaintiff’s services included mulching trees 6”-
8” in diameter[,] and Plaintiff satisfied those terms of the
contract.
4. Plaintiff worked with Defendant on the job site for
approximately 10 days[,] and Plaintiff satisfactorily
complied with the terms of the contract. Plaintiff mulched
the 8.5 acres of land specified in the contract, and therefore
should be paid for the completed work. There was no
material breach of the contract by Plaintiff.
5. Defendant did not suffer any damages from
Plaintiff’s performance of services rendered under their
written contract. Defendant planned on hiring a logging
company to remove the larger trees on the job site before
Plaintiff finished the job[] and therefore did not incur any
unreasonable expenses by hiring D&L Logging months
after Plaintiff left the job site.
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Opinion of the Court
The trial court ordered Defendant to pay Plaintiff the $15,000.00 specified in the
contract plus any interest accrued. Defendant filed timely notice of appeal on 17 June
2019.
II. Standard of Review
We review an order entered by a trial court sitting without a jury to determine
whether competent evidence supports the findings, whether the findings support the
conclusions, and whether the conclusions support the judgment. Quick v. Quick, 305
N.C. 446, 454, 290 S.E.2d 653, 659 (1982). “Unchallenged findings of fact are
presumed correct and are binding on appeal.” In re Schiphof, 192 N.C. App. 696, 700,
666 S.E.2d 497, 500 (2008). The trial court’s findings of fact, even if challenged, shall
not be disturbed if there is evidence to support those findings, but its conclusions of
law are reviewable de novo. Hanson v. Legasus of North Carolina, LLC, 205 N.C.
App. 296, 299, 695 S.E.2d 499, 501 (2010). “Under a de novo review, the court
considers the matter anew and freely substitutes its own judgment for that of the
lower tribunal.” State v. Williams, 362 N.C. 628, 632-33, 669 S.E.2d 290, 294 (2008).
III. Analysis
Defendant argues that the trial court’s findings do not support Conclusions 3
and 4 that Plaintiff mulched all trees under six to eight inches in diameter and
therefore satisfied the terms of the contract. Defendant also argues that there are no
findings to support Conclusion 5 that Defendant did not suffer any damages and did
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Opinion of the Court
not incur unreasonable expenses from the Plaintiff’s performance of services.
Defendant further argues that even if there were such findings, there exists no
competent evidence to support them.
On the other hand, Plaintiff argues that the trial court’s findings support
Conclusions 3 and 4 that the Plaintiff satisfied the terms of the contract. Plaintiff
contends that these findings are supported by the testimony of Messrs. Hall and
Stevenson, who testified that they mulched the entire 8.5 acres, took down all trees
under eight inches in diameter, and that Defendant was present at the job site for
the 10 days they were working there and was satisfied with the work. Plaintiff argues
that Conclusion 5 is supported by the trial court’s conclusion that Plaintiff satisfied
the terms of the contract and by the unchallenged finding that “Defendant told
Plaintiff he would have to hire a logging company to remove the large trees once
Plaintiff finished mulching the property.”
For the following reasons, we agree with Defendant that the trial court’s
findings do not support its conclusion that Plaintiff fully performed under the
contract.
Rule 52(a) of the North Carolina Rules of Civil Procedure requires a trial judge
sitting without a jury to specifically find facts and state separately its conclusions of
law. N.C. Gen. Stat. § 1A-1, Rule 52(a)(1) (2019). The trial court is required to set
forth the “specific findings of the ultimate facts established by the evidence,
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admissions and stipulations which are determinative of the questions involved in the
action and essential to support the conclusions of law reached.” Gilbert v. Guilford
County, 238 N.C. App. 54, 56, 767 S.E.2d 93, 95 (2014) (emphasis in original omitted).
“Evidence must support findings; findings must support conclusions; conclusions
must support the judgment. . . . [E]ach link in the chain of reasoning must appear in
the order itself.” Coble v. Coble, 300 N.C. 708, 714, 268 S.E.2d 185, 190 (1980).
“Where the evidence is conflicting . . . , the judge must resolve the conflict. He
sees the witnesses, observes their demeanor as they testify and by reason of his more
favorable position, he is given the responsibility of discovering the truth.” State v.
Smith, 278 N.C. 36, 41, 178 S.E.2d 597, 601 (1971). The trial court must determine
“the weight to be given [the] testimony and the reasonable inferences to be drawn
therefrom. If different inferences may be drawn from the evidence, [the trial court]
determines which inferences [to] draw[ ] and which [to] reject[ ].” Knutton v. Cofield,
273 N.C. 355, 359, 160 S.E.2d 29, 33 (1968). “[O]nly the trial court can draw these
inferences or any other potential inferences based on the evidence.” In re J.C.D., ___
N.C. App. ___, ___, 828 S.E.2d 186, 193 (2019). “This Court does not resolve issues of
credibility” or conflicting evidence. Id.
Therefore, it is crucial that “the [trial] court [ ] make its own determination as
to what pertinent facts are actually established by the evidence[.]” Davis v. Davis, 11
N.C. App. 115, 117, 180 S.E.2d 374, 375 (1971). Where a trial court “merely recit[es]
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what the evidence may tend to show[,]” it fails to make the ultimate findings of fact
required for resolving any disputed issues. In re Gleisner, 141 N.C. App. 475, 480,
539 S.E.2d 362, 366 (2000). And when “[t]he trial court’s order [does] not resolve the
conflicts in the evidence and [does] not fully state the facts upon which its conclusions
rested, [ ] we must remand for additional findings of fact.” In re J.C.D., ___ N.C. App.
at ___, 828 S.E.2d at 193; see also In re Gleisner, 141 N.C. App. at 481, 539 S.E.2d at
366 (noting the need to “make ultimate findings of fact resolving the numerous
disputed issues”).
Here, the trial court’s findings fail to state all of the necessary inferences it
drew from the evidence, and several of the findings instead merely restate testimony.
In Finding 14, the trial court states, “Plaintiff mulched the 8.5 acres of the Lena
Springs Project; however, a controversy arose over the trees left standing after
Plaintiff left the job site.” Then Finding 15 states,
[t]he contract between the parties specified Plaintiff would
mulch all trees 6”-8” in diameter or less. Defendant
contends the trees left standing on the property after
Plaintiff left were smaller than 8” in diameter and should
have been cleared by Plaintiff. Defendant was only
satisfied with 1.5 acres of the 8.5 acre job.
These findings merely recount the key dispute between the parties. While the parties
presented conflicting evidence regarding how Plaintiff measured the trees it mulched,
neither here nor elsewhere in the findings did the trial court resolve this conflict such
that it could support any assessment as to whether Plaintiff left standing trees that
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Opinion of the Court
were smaller than eight inches in diameter. And yet the trial court concluded—
without any findings bearing out Plaintiff’s compliance with its obligation in
dispute—that “Plaintiff satisfactorily complied with the terms of the contract.”
Because the trial court failed to resolve the conflicts presented by the testimony, this
conclusion is not supported by the findings.
Plaintiff argues that what the trial court labeled conclusions of law are on
occasion factual findings sufficient to support the trial court’s ultimate legal
conclusion. Specifically, Plaintiff asserts that the statements in Conclusions 3 and 4
that “Plaintiff’s services included mulching trees 6”-8” in diameter and Plaintiff
satisfied those terms of the contract” and that “Plaintiff satisfactorily complied with
the terms of the contract” are findings that support the legal conclusion that “[t]here
was no material breach of the contract by Plaintiff.” But this assertion elides the
shortcoming addressed above: these statements do not resolve, much less state the
basis upon which they resolve, the controversy the trial court identified—whether,
due to measuring based on circumference instead of diameter, the trees that Plaintiff
left behind fell within the scope of the contract. Moreover, Conclusion 5 states,
Defendant did not suffer any damages from Plaintiff’s
performance of services rendered under their written
contract. Defendant planned on hiring a logging company
to remove the larger trees on the job site before Plaintiff
finished the job[] and therefore did not incur any
unreasonable expenses by hiring D&L Logging months
after Plaintiff left the job site.
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Opinion of the Court
The scope of D&L Logging’s labor, of course, turned on the number of trees left on the
property. Conclusion 5 thus depends on the court’s conclusion that Plaintiff fulfilled
its contractual obligations and is therefore, as explained above, also unsupported by
the findings of fact. In short, the order is missing essential links in its chain of
reasoning to support its conclusion that Plaintiff fulfilled its contractual obligations.1
IV. Conclusion
We conclude that the trial court failed to make ultimate findings of fact
necessary to resolve conflicts in the evidence, and that therefore the findings do not
support the conclusions of law. We therefore reverse and remand the judgment of
the trial court “with instructions to make ultimate findings of fact based on the
evidence and to enter clear and specific conclusions of law based on the findings of
fact.”2 In re Gleisner, 141 N.C. App. at 481, 539 S.E.2d at 366.
1 The dissent characterizes the trial court’s shortcoming not as a failure to show how it arrived
at its conclusion but instead as arriving at an untenable conclusion, thus requiring a straight reversal
instead of a reverse and remand with instructions. The dissent is certainly right that there is evidence
that Plaintiff measured by circumference, not diameter. And it is certainly possible that the trial court
might not be able to marshal sufficient evidentiary support to justify ruling for Plaintiff on remand.
But, in the dissent’s efforts to argue that it is clear that Plaintiff measured by circumference, no such
clarity emerges. The dissent instead merely highlights the contradictory nature of the testimony. It
is not our place to resolve these conflicts. The trial court, having heard the evidence and seen the
witnesses, is much better situated to do so.
2 The dissent argues we are actually vacating the trial court judgment. This is, at some level,
an academic debate, as the disposition line of our opinion is not as significant as the clear “instructions
to make ultimate findings of fact” on remand immediately above. That being said, the reverse and
remand, as opposed to vacate, nomenclature is most appropriate under these circumstances. Compare
1-16 North Carolina Appellate Practice and Procedure § 16.02 (2018) (“REVERSED. The appellate
court has determined, usually in a civil case, that the trial tribunal committed reversible error. If the
reversal requires additional proceedings in the trial tribunal, the disposition may read REVERSED
AND REMANDED.”), with 1-16 North Carolina Appellate Practice and Procedure § 16.02 (2018)
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Opinion of the Court
REVERSED AND REMANDED.
Judge ZACHARY concurs.
Judge DILLON dissents by separate opinion.
(“VACATED. The order or judgment under consideration by the appellate court is rendered void. A
case may be VACATED AND REMANDED when the matter must return to the trial tribunal for
additional proceedings or for any other reason set out in the opinion.”).
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No. COA20-47 – Carolina Mulching Company, LLC v. Raleigh-Wilmington
Investors II, LLC; Shalimar Construction, Inc.
DILLON, Judge, dissenting.
Shalimar Construction, Inc. (“Shalimar”) subcontracted with Carolina
Mulching Company, LLC, (“Carolina Mulching”) to mulch all the trees and brush “up
to 6”-8” in diameter” on a construction site for $15,000.
Carolina Mulching performed mulching work on the site pursuant to the
contract. Shalimar, however, refused to pay Carolina Mulching the entire $15,000,
claiming that Carolina Mulching removed only a fraction of the trees which were
under 8” in diameter.
Carolina Mulching sued. A bench trial followed. At the trial, there was
evidence that Carolina Mulching cut only the trees that were 8” or less in
circumference, (which would only include trees with a diameter of 2.55” or less3).
The trial court entered its written decision, determining that the contract
provided that Carolina Mulching mulch trees up to “6”-8” in diameter and that
[Carolina Mulching] satisfied those terms of the contract.” In other words, the trial
court found that Carolina Mulching mulched all the trees under 6”-8” in diameter.
The majority has determined that the trial court erred, entering a mandate of
“reversed and remanded.” I agree with the majority that the trial court erred and
that the mandate should be “reversed and remanded.” However, in my view, the
3 The equation for finding the diameter of the tree is the circumference of the tree divided by
π. Here, 8” divided by π is approximately 2.55”.
CAROLINA MULCHING COMPANY, LLC V. RALEIGH-WILMINGTON INVESTORS II, LLC
DILLON, J., dissenting
majority is simply directing that the trial court’s order be “vacated” rather than
“reversed and remanded,” and, accordingly, I dissent.
The majority holds that the trial court did not enter sufficient findings to
support its judgment in favor of Carolina Mulching, but does not otherwise hold that
judgment should have been entered for Shalimar. Specifically, the majority concludes
that the trial court failed to enter a finding to resolve the conflict in the evidence
regarding whether Carolina Mulching, indeed, cut down only the trees under 8” in
circumference rather than 8” in diameter. The majority, therefore, directs the matter
be remanded for the trial court to resolve the conflict and enter judgment accordingly,
a judgment that could still be in favor of Carolina Mulching. Accordingly, I believe
that the majority is simply “vacating” the trial court’s judgment.
I conclude, however, that the trial court has made a finding resolving the
conflict. The order expressly states that the contract called for Carolina Mulching to
mulch all trees up to 8” in diameter and that Carolina Mulching “satisfied those terms
of the contract.” It is true that this statement is included in the “Conclusions of Law”
section. But this statement is clearly a “finding” that resolves any conflict in the
evidence, no matter how it is labeled in the order.
I conclude further, though, that the evidence was insufficient to submit the
issue to the fact-finder. Carolina Mulching failed to meet its burden to reach the fact-
finder (the trial judge in this case) to put on evidence that it mulched the trees up to
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DILLON, J., dissenting
8” in diameter. Accordingly, the trial court’s order should be “reversed” and judgment
should be entered for Shalimar.
My vote to reverse differs from the majority’s mandate which essentially
vacates the order.4 See Kelso v. U.S. Dep’t of State, 13 F. Supp. 2d 12, 18 (D.D.C.
1998) (“Although the word reverse shares vacate’s meanings of to [annul] and to set
aside, it has an additional, more extensive definition: ‘To reverse a judgment means
to overthrow it by contrary decision[.]’”); see also Mickens v. Taylor, 535 U.S. 162, 170
n.3; 152 L. Ed. 2d 291, 303 n.3 (2002) (emphasizing that a prior ruling had only
“vacated” the judgment, remanding for further proceedings, rather than “reversed”
and overturned a conviction.”).
Regarding my vote to reverse, I note that it is not appropriate for us to reweigh
the evidence on appeal. But here I conclude that there was insufficient evidence to
support the trial court’s finding that Carolina Mulching mulched all the trees up to
8” in diameter. Admittedly, there is testimony from Carolina Mulching’s witnesses
that they mulched the trees that were 8” in diameter or less. However, the evidence
is uncontradicted that Carolina Mulching’s witnesses thought “diameter” meant
4 Admittedly, judges often use “vacate” and “reverse” interchangeably. See In re IBM Credit
Corp., 222 N.C. App. 418, 426, 731 S.E.2d 444, 449 (2012) (stating that “[a]s a practical matter, the
terms ‘vacate’ and ‘reverse’ are synonymous as used in most cases”); Lauziere v. Stanley Martin Cmtys.,
LLC, 2020 N.C. App. LEXIS 352 *15 n. 2 (discussing the difference between “reverse” and “vacate”) (J.
Dillon dissenting).
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DILLON, J., dissenting
“circumference.” Its first witness was its owner who worked the site. He testified on
direct by Carolina Mulching’s own attorney that he measured the circumference:
Q: What is the significance of six to eight inches in diameter?
A: . . . If you put a tape measure around [a tree], that would be eight
inches, give or take. . . .
Q: So we’re talking eight inches around it?
A: Yeah, but wouldn’t do oak trees eight inches.
Later, he described how he determined whether a tree in a photograph of the site was
8” in diameter, by again describing how a tree’s circumference would be measured:
Q: All right, can you estimate the sizes of those trees?
A: Well, it’s bigger than what we typically take, which would be
bigger than eight inches. If you put a tape measure on this, it’s probably
eight to ten inches.
Carolina Mulching’s other fact witness was an employee of that company who
worked on the job. He confirmed his boss’s erroneous definition of “diameter”:
A: I would not have left the trees if they were under eight inches in
diameter.
Q: And again, we’re talking about how [your boss] described it as
take a tape measure around it and measure that tree and it’s eight
inches [ ] or smaller, right?
A: Say that again.
Q: Sure; [your boss] said if you take a tape measure around that tree
and measure it, and if it’s eight inches or less, that’s –
A: That’s correct.
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DILLON, J., dissenting
After Carolina Mulching’s case in chief, Shalimar put on a defense, calling a
number of witnesses who testified that Carolina Mulching left enough trees under
8” in diameter to fill over 11 truck loads.
After Shalimar rested, Carolina Mulching recalled the employee who had
described “diameter” as measuring around the tree, hoping his testimony would
strike a different chord this second time around. When recalled, the employee did
state that they were cutting trees based on “diameter.”
Q: Were you doing eight-inch circumference trees?
A: Diameter.
However, the testimony went off on a tangent regarding whether a tree was
measured from a thick part of the trunk (near the bottom) or a thinner part. The
employee never demonstrated during his rebuttal testimony that he now understood
what the term “diameter” actually meant or the process by which he calculated the
diameter. The only evidence as to what he thought “diameter” meant was from his
earlier testimony, the distance around a tree.
Accordingly, I conclude that Carolina Mulching, as the plaintiff in this case,
failed to meet its burden of showing that it cut down all of the trees under 8” in
diameter, the basis of the trial court’s judgment. The trial court, otherwise, did not
enter judgment based on some other theory, e.g. mistake.
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