DocketNumber: 48
Judges: Day, Holmes, Hughes, Pitney
Filed Date: 1/25/1915
Status: Precedential
Modified Date: 10/19/2024
delivered the opinion of the court.
In a local court in one of the counties of Kansas, plaintiff in error was found guilty and adjudged to pay a fine, with imprisonment as the alternative, upon an information charging him with a violation of an act of the legislature of that State, approved March 13, 1903, being Chap. 222 of the session laws of that year, found also as §§ 4674 and 4675, Gen. Stat. Kansas 1909. The act reads as follows:
“An Act to provide a penalty for coercing or influeneing- or making demands upon or requirements of employés, servants, laborers, and persons seeking employment.
“Beit Enacted, etc.:
. “Section 1. That it shall be unlawful for any individual or member of any firm, or any agent, officer or employé of any company or corporation, to. coerce, require, demand or influence any person or persons to enter into any agreement, either written or verbal, not to join or become or remain a'member of any labor organization or association, as a condition of such person or persons securing employment, or continuing in the employment of such individual, firm, or corporation.
“Sec. 2. Any individual or member of any firm or any*7 agent, officer or employé of any company or corporation violating the provisions of this act shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall be fined in a sum not less than fifty dollars or imprisoned in the county jail hot less than thirty days.”
The judgment was affirmed by the Supreme Court of the State, two justices dissenting (87 Kansas, 752), and the case is brought here upon the ground that the statute, as construed and applied in this case, is in conflict with that provision of the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution of the United States which declares that no State shall deprive any person of liberty or property without due process of law.
The facts, as recited in the opinion of the Supreme Court, are as follows: About July 1,1911,.one Hedges was employed as a switchman by the St. Louis & San Francisco Railway Company, and was a member of a labor organization called the Switchmen’s Union of North America. Plaintiff in error was employed by the railway company as superintendent, and as such he requested Hedges to sign an agreement, which he presented to him in writing, at the same time informing him that if he did not sign it he could not remain in the employ of the company. The following is a copy of the paper thus presented:
Fort Scott, Kansas, --, 1911.
Mr. T. B. Coppage, Superintendent Frisco Lines, Fort Scott:
We, the undersigned, have agreed to abide by your request, that is, to withdraw from the Switchmen’s Union, while in the service of the Frisco Company.
(Signed) -' '
Hedges refused to sign this, and refused to withdraw from the labor organization. Thereupon plaintiff in error, as such superintendent, discharged him from the service of the company..
In Adair v. United States, 208 U. S. 161, this court had to deal with a .question not. distinguishable in principle from the one now presented. Congress, in § 10 of an aet of June 1, 1898, entitled “An Act concerning carriers engaged in interstate commerce and their employés” (c. 370, 30 Stat. 424, 428), had enacted “That any employer subject to the provisions of this Act and any officer, agent, or receiver of such employer who shall require any employé, or any person seeking employment, as a condition of such employment, to enter into an agreement, either written or verbal, not to become or remain a member
Unless it is to be overruled, this decision is controlling upon the present controversy; for if Congress is prevented from arbitral r interference with the liberty of contract because of the “due process” provision of the Fifth Amendment, it is too clear for argument that the States are prevented from the like interference by virtue of the corresponding clause of the Fourteenth Amendment; and hence if it be unconstitutional for Congress to deprive an employer of liberty or property for threatening an em-ployé with loss of employment or discriminating against him because of his membership in a labor organization, it is unconstitutional for a State to similarly punish an employer for requiring his employé, as a condition of securing or retaining employment, to agree not to become or remain a member of such an organization while so employed.
It is true that, while the statute that was dealt with in the Adair Case contained a clause substantially identical with the Kansas act now under consideration — a clause making it a misdemeanor for an employer to require an employé or applicant for employment, as a condition of such employment, to agree not to become or remain a member, of a labor organization, — 'the conviction was
But, irrespective of whether it has received judicial recognition, is there any real distinction? The constitutional right of the employer to discharge an employé because of his membership in .a labor union being granted, can the employer be compelled to resort to this extreme measure? May he not offer to the employé an option, such as was offered in the instant case, to remain in the employment if he will retire from the union; to sever the former relationship only if he prefers the latter? Granted the equal freedom of both parties to the contract of employment, has not each party the right to stipulate upon what terms only he will consent to the inception, or to the continuance, of that relationship? And may he not insist, upon an express agreement, instead of leaving the terms of the employment to be implied? Can the legislature in effect require either party at the'beginning to act covertly; concealing essential terms of the employment— terms to which, perhaps, the other would not willingly consent — and reveáling them only when it is proposed to insist upon them as a ground for terminating the relationship? Supposing an employer is unwilling to have in his
These queries answer themselves. The answers, as we think, lead to a single conclusion: Under constitutional freedom of contract, whatever either party has the right to treat as sufficient ground for terminating the employment, where there is no stipulation on the subject, he has the right to provide against by insisting that a stipulation respecting it shall be a sine qua non of the inception of the employment, or of its continuance if it be terminable at will. It follows that this case cannot be distinguished from Adair v. United States.
The decision in that case was reached as the result of elaborate argument and full consideration. The opinion states. (208 U. S. 171): "This question is admittedly one of importance, and has been examined with care and deliberation. And the court has reached a conclusion
An interference with this liberty so serious as that now under consideration, and so disturbing of equality of right, must be deemed to be arbitrary, unless it be supportable as a reasonable exercise of the police power of the State. But, notwithstanding the strong general presumption in favor of the validity of state laws, we do not think the statute in question, as construed and applied in this case, can be sustained as a legitimate exercise of that power. To avoid possible misunderstanding, we should here emphasize, what has been said before, that so far as its title or enacting clause expresses a purpose to deal with coercion,"compulsion, duress, or other undue influence, we have no present concern with it, because nothing of that sort is involved in this case. As has
Laying aside, therefore, as immaterial for present purposes, so much of the statute as indicates a purpose to repress coercive practices, what possible relation has.the residue of the Act to the public health, safety, morals or general welfare?' None is suggested, and we are unable to ponceive of any. The Act, as the construction given to it by the state court shows, is intended to deprive employers of a part, of their liberty of contract, to the corresponding advantage of the employed and the upbuilding of the labor organizations. But no attempt is made, or could reasonably be made, to sustain the purpose to strengthen these voluntary organizations, any more than other 'voluntary associations of persons, as a legitimate object for the exercise of the police power. They are not public institutions, charged by law with public or governmental duties, such’ as would render the maintenance of their membership a matter of direct concern to the general
As to the interest of the employed, it is said by the Kansas Supreme Court (87 Kansas, p. 759) to be a matter of common knowledge that "employés, as a rule, are not financially able to be as independent in making contracts for the sale of their labor as are employers in making contracts of purchase thereof.” No doubt, wherever the right of private property exists, there must and will be inequalities of fortune; and thus it naturally happens that parties negotiating about a contract are not equally unhampered by circumstances. This applies to all contracts, and not merely to that between employer and employé. Indeed a little reflection will show that wherever the right of private property and the right of free contract co-exist, each party when contracting is inevitably more or less influenced by the question whether he has much property, or little, or none; for the contract is made to the very end that each may gain something that he needs or desires more urgently than that which he proposes to give in exchange. And, since it is self-evident that, unless all things are held in common, some persons must have more, property than others, it is' from the nature of things impossible to uphold freedom of contract and the right of private property without at the same time recognizing as legitimate those inequalities of fortuné that are the necessary result of the e'xercise of those rights. But the Fourteenth Amendment, in declaring that a State shall not "deprive any person of life, liberty or property without due process of law,” gives to each of these an equal sanction; it recognizes “liberty” and "property” as co-existent human rights, and debars the States from any unwarranted interference with either.
And since a State may not strike them down directly it is clear that it may not do so indirectly, as by declaring in effect that the public good requires the removal of those
We need not refer to the numerous and familiar cases in which' this court has held that the power may properly be exercised for preserving the public health, safety, morals, or general welfare, and that such police regulations may reasonably limit the enjoyment of personal liberty, including the right of making contracts. They are reviewed in Holden v. Hardy, 169 U. S. 366, 391; Chicago, B. & Quincy R. R. v. McGuire, 219, U. S. 549, 566; Erie R. R. v. Williams, 233 U. S. 685; and other recent decisions. An evident and controlling distinction is this: that in those cases it has been held permissible for the States to adopt regulations fairly deemed necessary to secure some object directly affecting the public welfare, even though the enjoyment of private rights of liberty and property be thereby incidentally hampered; while in that portion of the Kansas statute which is now under consideration — that is to say, aside from coercion, etc. — there is no object or purpose, expressed or implied, that is claimed to have reference to health, safety, morals, or public welfare, beyond the supposed desirability of leveling inequalities of fortune by depriving one who has property of some part of what is characterized as his “financial independence.” In short, an interference with the normal exercise of personal liberty and property rights is the primary object of the statute, and not an incident to the advancement of the general welfare. But, in our opinion, the Fourteenth Amendment debars the States from striking down personal liberty or property rights, or materially restricting their normal exercise, excepting
It is said in the opinion of the state court that membership in a labor organization does not necessarily affect a man’s duty to his employer; that the employer has no right, by virtue of the relation, “to dominate the life nor to interfere with the liberty of the employé in matters that do not lessen or deteriorate the service”; and that “the statute implies that labor unions are lawful and not inimical to the rights of employers.” The same view is presented in the brief of counsel for the State, where it is said that membership in a labor organization is the “personal and private affair” of the employé. To this line of argument .it is sufficient to say that it cannot be judicially declared that membership in such an organization has no relation to a member’s duty to his employer; and therefore, if freedom of contract is to be preserved, the employer must be left at liberty to decide for himself whether such membership by his employé is consistent with the satisfactory performance of the duties of the employment.
Of course we do not intend to say, nor to intimate, anything inconsistent with the right of individuals to join labor unions, nor do we question the legitimacy of such organizations so long as they conform to the laws of the land as others are required to do. Conceding the full right of the individual to join the union, he has no inherent right to do this and still remain in the employ of one who .is unwilling to employ a union man, any more than the same individual has a right to join the union without the consent of that organization. Can it be doubted that a
When a man is called upon to agree not to become or remain a member of the union while working for a particular employer, he is in effect only asked to deal openly and frankly with his employer, so as not to retain the employment upon terms to which the latter is not willing to agree. And the liberty of making contracts does not include a liberty to procure employment from an unwilling employer, or without a fair understanding. Nor may the
To ask a man to agree, in advance, to refrain from affiliation with the union while retaining a certain position of employment, is not to ask him to give up any part of his constitutional freedom. He is free to decline the employment on those terms, just as the employer may decline to offer employment on any other; for “It takes two to-make a bargain.” Having accepted employment on those terms, the man is still free to join the union when the period of employment expires; or, if employed at will, then at any time upon simply quitting the employment. And, if bound by his own agreement to refrain from joining during a stated period of employment, he is in no different situation from that which is necessarily incident to term contracts in- general. For constitutional freedom of contract does not mean that a party is to be as'free after making a contract as before; he is not free to break it without accountability. Freedom of contract, from the very nature of the thing, can be enjoyed only by being exercised; and each particular exercise of it involves making an engagement Which, if fulfilled, prevents for the time any inconsistent course of conduct.
So much for the reason of the matter; let us turn again to the adjudicated cases.
The decision in the Adair Case is in accord with the almost unbroken current of authorities in the state courts. In many States enactments not distinguishable in principle from the one now in question have been passed, but, except in two instances (one, the decision of an inferior court in Ohio, since repudiated; the other, the decision now under review), we are unable to find that they have been judicially enforced. It is not too much to say that such laws have by common consent been treated as unconstitutional, for while many state courts of last resort have adjudged them void, we have found, no decision by such a court
The right that plaintiff in error is now seeking to maintain was held by the Supreme Court of Kansas, in an earlier case, to be within the protection of the Fourteenth Amendment and therefore beyond legislative interference. In Coffeyville Brick Co. v. Perry, 69 Kansas, 297; 76 Pac. Rep. 848; 66 L. R. A. 185; 1 A. & E. Ann. Cas. 936; the court had under consideration Ch. 120 of the Laws of 1897 (Gen. Stat. 1901, §§ 2425, 2426), which declared it unlawful for any person, company, or corporation, or agent, officer, etc., to prevent employés from joining and belonging to any labor organization, and enacted that any such person, company, or corporation, etc., that coerced or attempted to coerce employés by discharging or threatening to discharge them because of their connection with such labor organization should be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction subjected to a fine, and should also be liable to the person injured in punitive damages. It was attacked as violative of the Fourteenth Amendment, and also of the Bill of . Right's of the state
In Railway Co. v. Brown, 80 Kansas, 312; 102 Pac. Rep. 459, the same court passed upon Chapter 144 of the Laws of 1897 (Gen. Stat. 1901, §§ 2421-2424), which required the employer upon the request of a discharged employé to furnish in writing the true cause or reason for such discharge.' The railway company did not meet this requirement, its “service letter,” as it was called, stating only that Brown- was discharged “for cause,” which the court naturally held was not a statement of the cause. The law was held unconstitutional, upon the ground (80 Kansas, 315) that an employer may discharge his employé Jor any reason, or for no. reason,Just as an employé may quit the employment for any reason, or for no reason; that such action on the part of employer or employé, where no obligation is violated, is an essential element of liberty in action; and that one cannot be compelled to give a reason or cause for an action for which he may have no specific reason or cause, except, perhaps; a mere whim or prejudice.
In the present case the court did not repudiate or overrule these previous decisions, but on the contrary cited them as establishing the right of the employer to discharge his employé at any time, for any reason, or for no reason, being responsible in damages for violating a contract as to the time of employment, and as establishing, conversely, the right of the employé to quit the employment at any time, for any reason, or without ahy reason, being likewise responsible in damages for a violation of his contract with the employer. The court held the act of 1903 that is now in question to be distinguishable from the
In five other States the courts of last resort have had similar acts under consideration, and in each instance have held them unconstitutional. In State v. Julow (1895), 129 Missouri, 163; 31 S. W. Rep. 781; 29 L. R. A. 257; 50 Am. St. Rep. 443; the Supreme Court of Missouri dealt with an act (Missouri Laws 1893, p. 187), that forbade employers, on pain of fine or imprisonment, to enter into any agreement with an employé requiring him to withdraw from a labor union or other lawful organization, or to refrain from joining such an organization, or to “by any means attempt to compel or coerce any employé into withdrawal from any lawful organization or society.” In Gillespie v. The People (1900); 188 Illinois, 176; 58 N. E. Rep. 1007; 52 L. R. A. 283; 80 Am. St. Rep. 176; the Supreme Court of Illinois held' unconstitutional an act (Hurd’s Stat. 1899, p. 844) declaring it criminal for any individual or member of any firm, etc., to prevent or attempt to prevent employés from forming, joining, and belonging to any lawful labor organization, and that any such person “that coerces or attempts to coerce employés by discharging or threatening to discharge them because of their connection with such lawful labor organization” should be guilty of a misdemeanor. In State, ex rel. Zillmer v. Kreutzberg (1902), 114 Wisconsin, 530; 90 N. W. Rep. 1098; 58 L. R. A. 748; 91 Am. St. Rep. 934; the court had under consideration a statute (Wisconsin Laws 1899, ch. 332), which, like the Kansas act now in question, prohibited the employer or his agent from coercing the em-ployé to enter into an agreement not to become a member of a labor organization, as a condition of securing employment or continuing in the employment, and also rendered it unlawful to discharge an employé because of his being a member of any labor organization. The decision related to the latter prohibition, but this was denounced
Upon both principle and authority, therefore, we are-constrained to hold that the Kansas act of March 13,1903, as construed and applied so as to punish with fine or imprisonment an employer or his agent for merely prescribing, as a condition upon which one may secure employment under or remain in the service of such employer, that the employé shall enter into an agreement not to become or remain a member of any labor organization while so employed, is repugnant to the “due process” clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, and therefore void.
Judgment reversed, and the cause remanded for further proceedings not inconsistent with this opinion.
Constitution of tbe State of Kansas. . .' . Bill of Rights.
Section 1. All men are possessed of equal and inalienable natural rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
Section 18. All persons, for injuries suffered in person, reputation or property, shall have remedy by due course of law, and justice administered without delay.