City of Seattle v. Evans

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IN THE SUPREME COURT OF THE STATE OF WASHINGTON
CITY OF SEATTLE, )
)
Respondent, ) No. 90608-4
)
V. ) En Bane
)
WAYNE ANTHONY EVANS, )
) Filed DEC 3 1 2015
Petitioner. )
WIGGINS, J.-Wayne Anthony Evans contends that Seattle Municipal Code
(SMC) 12A.14.080 1 violates his right to bear arms under article I, section 24 of the
Washington Constitution and the Second Amendment to the United States
Constitution because the ordinance does not permit him to carry a small, fixed-blade
"paring" knife for the purpose of self-defense. A jury convicted Evans of violating this
ordinance, and both the superior court and the Court of Appeals affirmed.
We affirm the Court of Appeals but on different grounds. We hold that Evans's
paring knife is not an arm entitled to constitutional protection and that Evans therefore
cannot establish that SMC 12A.14.080 was unconstitutionally applied to him.
1Evans was charged under former SMC 12A. 14.080 (1994). Since the changes do not affect
our analysis, we cite to the current statute.
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
FACTS
Seattle Police Officer Michael Conners stopped a vehicle driven by Wayne
Anthony Evans for speeding in the Central District of Seattle. As Conners approached
Evans's vehicle, he observed furtive movements from Evans and his passenger, and
he smelled marijuana. Conners directed Evans to exit the vehicle and asked him
whether he had any weapons. Evans responded that there was a knife in his pocket.
Conners instructed Evans not to reach for the knife; Conners then reached into
Evans's front right pocket, retrieved a fixed-blade knife with a black handle, and placed
Evans under arrest for possession of a fixed-blade knife.
The city of Seattle (City) charged Evans with the unlawful use of weapons in
violation of SMC 12A.14.080(8). 2 The case proceeded to trial and the City introduced
the knife into evidence and presented testimony from one witness, Conners. Conners
identified the knife that he recovered from Evans at trial and the State entered that
knife into evidence. When asked, Conners described the knife as having a "black
handle with a metal colored blade" that was "about-about this long," apparently
gesturing with his hands. Conners admitted that he was concerned that the knife had
a fixed blade-that is, it had a blade that would not fold into the handle-and
alternately described the blade as resembling a "kitchen knife" or a "paring knife." 3 He
also stated that the knife had a sheath in the form of a plastic cover on the blade.
2 SMC 12A.14.080(B) provides in part, "It is unlawful for a person knowingly to ... carry
concealed or unconcealed on his or her person any dangerous knife." A "dangerous knife" is
defined as "any fixed-blade knife and any other knife having a blade more than 3 % inches in
length." SMC 12A.14.010(C).
3 A "paring knife" is a common small, fixed-blade knife with a short handle and a blade of three
to four inches; a 3 % inch blade is the most common size. NORMAN WEINSTEIN, MASTERING
2
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
The municipal court instructed the jury:
Jury Instruction 3: A person commits the crime of Unlawful Use of
Weapons when he or she knowingly carries a dangerous knife on his or
her person.
Jury Instruction 4: Dangerous knife means a knife, regardless of blade
length, with a blade which is permanently open and does not fold, retract,
or slide into the handle of the knife and includes a dagger, sword,
bayonet, bolo knife, hatchet, ax, straight-edged razor or razor blade not
in a package, dispenser, or shaving appliance)4l
The jury returned a general verdict of guilty, and Evans's conviction was affirmed by
the superior court and the Court of Appeals. See City of Seattle v. Evans, 182 Wn.
App. 188, 327 P.3d 1303 (2014), review granted, 181 Wn.2d 1022, 339 P.3d 634(2014).
We granted review and now affirm.
ANALYSIS
Evans brings an as-applied challenge to SMC 12A.14.080, arguing that the
statute's prohibition on carrying fixed-blade knives unconstitutionally infringes on his
right to bear arms. In answering this challenge, the threshold question is whether
Evans demonstrates that his fixed-blade knife is a protected arm under the
Washington or federal constitution. Though we previously held that small, fixed-blade
paring knives are not arms under the Washington Constitution, City of Seattle v.
Montana, 129 Wn.2d 583, 919 P.2d 1218 (1996), Evans asks us to reconsider that
KNIFE SKILLS: THE ESSENTIAL GUIDE TO THE MOST IMPORTANT TOOLS IN YOUR KITCHEN 30 (2008).
Paring knives are often described as being appropriate for cutting fruits and vegetables. /d.
4 This instruction follows the language of chapter 12A.14 SMC but substitutes the definition
of "fixed-blade knife" for that term as found in SMC 12A.14.01 0.
3
City of Seattle v: Evans, No. 90608-4
holding in light of District of Columbia v. Heller, 554 U.S. 570, 128 S. Ct. 2783, 171 L.
Ed. 2d 637 (2008).
In considering whether paring knives are entitled to constitutional protection
following Heller, we conduct a thorough survey of cases considering the protections
afforded by the right to bear arms. Using principles and factors derived from Heller,
Montana, and other courts to consider the scope of the term "arms," we hold that not
all knives are constitutionally protected arms and that Evans does not demonstrate
that his paring knife is an "arm" as defined under our state or federal constitution.
Therefore, Evans cannot establish that SMC 12A.14.080(B) is unconstitutional as
applied to him and we reject his as-applied challenge. 5
I. Standard of Review
We review constitutional issues de novo. State v. Gresham, 173 Wn.2d 405,
419, 269 P.3d 207 (2012). We presume that statutes are constitutional and place '"the
burden to show unconstitutionality ... on the challenger."' In re Estate of Hambleton,
181 Wn.2d 802, 817, 335 P.3d 398 (2014) (alteration in original) (quoting Amunrud v.
Bd. of Appeals, 158 Wn.2d 208, 215, 143 P.3d 571 (2006)).
5 This result stems from the limited scope of Evans's appeal. Evans argues only that the
Seattle ordinance in question violates his right to bear arms. Amicus curiae Washington
Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers newly raises the contention that the ordinance is
unconstitutionally vague and thus violates the due process clause of the Fourteenth
Amendment and Washington Constitution, article I, section 3. But Evans never argued that
the ordinance was vague, too broad, or improperly sweeps within its prohibitions innocuous
objects like tools. This court "will not address arguments raised only by amicus." Citizens for
Responsible Wildlife Mgmt. v: State, 149 Wn.2d 622, 631, 71 P.3d 644 (2003). Because
Evans's appeal is based solely on his right to bear arms, the threshold question of whether
the object carried in his pocket qualifies as a constitutionally protected "arm" is dispositive of
his appeal.
4
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
"'[A]n as-applied challenge to the constitutional validity of a statute is
characterized by a party's allegation that application of the statute in the specific
context of the party's actions or intended actions is unconstitutional."' State v. Hunley,
175 Wn.2d 901, 916, 287 P.3d 584 (2012) (alteration in original) (quoting City of
Redmond v. Moore, 151 Wn.2d 664, 668-69, 91 P.3d 875 (2004)). "'Holding a statute
unconstitutional as-applied prohibits future application of the statute in a similar
context, but the statute is not totally invalidated."' /d. at 916 (quoting Moore, 151 Wn.2d
at 669). "In contrast, a successful facial challenge is one where no set of
circumstances exists in which the statute, as currently written, can be constitutionally
applied." Moore} 151 Wn.2d at 669.
II. Article I, Section 24 and City of Seattle v. Montana
We first consider Evans's argument that his paring knife is an arm under article
I, section 24 of the Washington Constitution. Accord State v. Coe, 101 Wn.2d 364,
373-7 4, 679 P.2d 353 (1984) (we consider constitutional questions first under our own
state constitution). Article I, section 24 of the Washington Constitution reads:
The right of the individual citizen to bear arms in defense of himself, or
the state, shall not be impaired, but nothing in this section shall be
construed as authorizing individuals or corporations to organize,
maintain or employ an armed body of men.
This "right to bear arms" is an individual right that exists in the context of that
individual's defense of himself or the state. State v. Sieyes, 168 Wn.2d 276, 292-93,
225 P.3d 995 (201 0). We considered but did not decide whether the scope of the term
"arms" embraced knives in City of Seattle v. Montana. See 1209 Wn.2d at 591 ("In the
absence of a Gunwa/1 analysis on the question of whether, or what type of, knives
5
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
constitute 'arms' under art. I, § 24, we decline to reach this question." (citing State v.
Gunwa/1, 106 Wn.2d 54, 720 P.2d 808 (1986))).
In Montana, this court considered a challenge to former SMC 12A.14.080
(1987), substantively the same ordinance at issue here. Alberto Montana was
convicted of the unlawful use of a weapon for possessing a small, fixed-blade paring
knife approximately three inches long. On appeal, he argued that former SMC
12A.14.080 violated his right to bear arms under article I, section 24 and that the
ordinance was unconstitutionally vague or overbroad.
This court issued a divided opinion. The lead opinion held that the ordinance,
which makes it "unlawful for a person knowingly to . . . [c]arry concealed or
unconcealed on his/her person any dangerous knife," was a "reasonable" restriction
on a citizen's "right to bear arms in defense of himself," as guaranteed by the
Washington Constitution art. I, section 24. Former SMC 12A.14.080(B); Montana, 129
Wn.2d at 599). Justice Alexander's concurrence rejected that view, opining that the
lead opinion "incorrectly determines that the ordinance . . . passes muster under
Washington's constitution when applied to a case where the knives are 'arms,' as that
term was envisioned by the drafters of our state constitution." /d. at 600. His
concurrence expressed the view that "the drafters of the state constitution intended,
by [the] plain words [of Washington Constitution article I, section 24], absolutely to
protect a person's right to carry arms for personal defense." /d. "Seattle's ordinance is
such a broad prohibition on the possession and carrying of knives, including those
that fall within the definition of 'arms,' that it is not ... a 'reasonable regulation'[, as
the lead opinion would hold]." /d. The concurrence stated, "I fail to see how the
6
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
ordinance can be considered constitutional when it is applied so as to prohibit the
carrying of 'arms' for the purposes of self-defense." /d. at 600-01.
Nonetheless, five justices held that fixed-blade paring knives and small kitchen
knives-such as the knife at issue in this case-are not protected arms under the
Washington State Constitution. See id. at 599 (Durham, C.J., concurring, joined by
Guy, J.), 601 (Alexander, J., concurring, joined by Johnson and Madsen, JJ.)
(Montana's small paring knife is not an arm as it is neither a traditional nor a modern
arm of self-defense). The four justices in the lead opinion declined to decide the issue
but stated that "the term 'arms' extends only to weapons designed as such, and not
to every utensil, instrument, or thing which might be used to strike or injure another
person." /d. at 590-91 (quoting State v. Nelson, 38 La. Ann. 942, 946, 58 Am. Rep.
202 (1886)). Thus, under Montana, Evans's fixed-blade paring knife is not a protected
arm under article I, section 24. 6
Ill. The Parameters of the Right To Bear Arms
Evans urges us to reconsider Montana and hold that the term "arms" includes
fixed-blade knives such as his paring knife. Evans also asserts that even if his knife
6 We are mindful of-and expressly renew-the concern expressed in Justice Alexander's
concurring opinion in Montana: many knives banned under the Seattle ordinance may be
arms deserving constitutional protection. See 129 Wn.2d at 600 (Alexander, J., concurring).
The problem that the concurrence identified was that "the ordinance exempts from its scope
the carrying of knives while engaged in hunting, fishing, the culinary arts, and other lawful
occupations, activities not protected by the constitution, yet does not exempt from its scope
the carrying of arms for the purpose recognized in the statute constitution, self defense." /d.
at 601. However, Evans's as-applied challenge does not establish that his knife is an arm and
it does not establish that the ordinance is unconstitutional as applied to him. In a different
case under appropriate facts, the ordinance's "broad prohibition" on carrying arms for
purposes of self-defense may well be constitutionally infirm. See id. at 600-01 (Alexander, J.,
concurring). We reserve judgment on this issue for an appropriate case.
7
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
is not protected under article I, section 24, Montana is abrogated and his knife is
protected by the Second Amendment following the United States Supreme Court's
holding in Heller. In order for us to reconsider our holding, Evans must demonstrate
either that the decision is incorrect or harmful or that the legal underpinnings of the
decision have changed or disappeared altogether. W G. Clark Constr. Co. v. Pac. Nw.
Reg'/ Council of Carpenters, 180 Wn.2d 54, 66, 322 P.3d 1207 (2014). Evans
specifically argues that we must reconsider the parameters of the right to bear arms
under the Washington Constitution in light of Heller and the protections afforded by
the Second Amendment.
A. Survey of the term "arms"
The Second Amendment to the United States Constitution reads, "A well
regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people
to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed." As with article I, section 24, this
guarantees an individual right to keep and bear arms. Heller, 554 U.S. at 592-94. This
right is incorporated against the States. McDonald v. City of Chicago, 561 U.S. 742,
791, 130 S. Ct. 3020, 177 L. Ed. 2d 894 (201 0); see also Sieyes, 168 Wn.2d at 291.
The United States Supreme Court discussed the parameters of the right
protected by the Second Amendment in Heller. Though Heller specifically held that
the right to bear arms extended to handguns, the Supreme Court defined the term
"arms" to encompass all bearable arms that were common at the time of the founding
and that could be used for self-defense. 554 U.S. at 581, 627. The court continued:
The term [arms] was applied, then as now, to weapons that were
not specifically designed for military use and were not employed in a
military capacity. For instance, Cunningham's legal dictionary gave as an
8
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
example of usage: "Servants and labourers shall use bows and arrows
on Sundays, &c. and not bear other arms."
/d. at 581 (quoting 1A NEW AND COMPLETE DICTIONARY (1771 )). This definition is
designed to protect an individual's right to carry a weapon for the particular purpose
of confrontation. /d. at 592. However, this definition of "arms" still contemplates that
an arm is a weapon. /d. at 581 ("the term [arms] was applied, then as now, to
weapons ... "); see a/so id. (noting that Samuel Johnson's 1773 dictionary defined
"arms" as "'[w]eapons of offense, or armour of defence."' (alteration in original)
(quoting 1 DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 106 (4th ed. 1978))).
This definition of "arms" under the federal constitution is not unlimited: "the
Second Amendment right, whatever its nature, extends only to certain types of
weapons." /d. at 623 (citing United States v. Miller, 307 U.S. 174, 59 S. Ct. 816, 83 L.
Ed. 1206 (1939)). Specifically, the Second Amendment "does not protect those
weapons not typically possessed by law-abiding citizens for lawful purposes, such as
short-barreled shotguns. /d. at 625. The Court then stated that the District of
Columbia's handgun ban at issue in the case "amounts to a prohibition of an entire
class of 'arms' that is overwhelmingly chosen by American society for that lawful
purpose." /d. at 628.
Evans's reliance on Heller is misplaced-an analysis of the term "arms" under
the Second Amendment does not require a different result than noted above. Heller
addressed a local ordinance that completely banned handguns in the home and is
simply too different to provide useful guidance here. See 554 U.S. at 636 (Second
Amendment bars "the absolute prohibition of handguns held and used for self-defense
9
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
in the home"). Heller does not address the use of knives carried for self-defense. See
Wooden v. United States, 6 A. 3d 833, 839 (D.C. 201 0) ("Heller is focused exclusively
on 'arms' or 'weapons,' meaning firearms when read in context.").
To the extent Heller might be applied here, it supports the notion that the small
fixed-blade knife found in Evans's front pocket does not qualify as an "arm" under the
Second Amendment. As noted above, Heller unremarkably observes that "firearms
constitute[] arms," but further defines "arms" in part as "'[w]eapons of offence."' Heller,
554 U.S. at 581 (first alteration in original) (quoting 1A DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH
LANGUAGE, supra, at 106). As the Heller Court observed, "the most natural reading of
'keep Arms' in the Second Amendment is to 'have weapons."' /d. at 582.
Several state courts have applied Heifers analysis of handguns as "arms" in
considering whether the right to bear arms extends to other objects ostensibly used
for self-defense. 7 Relevant here, the Connecticut Supreme Court used the Heller
analysis to determine whether a dirk knife-a long, straight-bladed dagger-was a
bearable arm protected under the federal constitution. State v. DeCiccio, 315 Conn.
79, 117, 105A.3d 165 (2014). Specifically, the court considered the "military origins,"
"history," and "purpose" of the dirk knife, comparing the dirk knife at times to a bayonet
7 We are aware of four States that have considered the parameters of the term "arms"
following Heller. See Commonwealth v. Caetano, 470 Mass. 774, 26 N.E.3d 688, 693-94
(2015) (stun guns are not protected arms under the Second Amendment because they were
not in common use at the enactment of the amendment and are considered per se dangerous
at common law); State v. DeCiccio, 315 Conn. 79, 117, 105 A.3d 165 (2014) (police baton
and dirk knife are constitutionally protected arms); Lacy v. State, 903 N.E.2d 486 (Ind. Ct.
App. 2009) (switchblade is not a weapon typically possessed by law-abiding citizens for self-
defense purposes); People v. Davis, 214 Cal. App. 4th 1322, 1331, 155 Cal. Rptr. 3d 128(2013) (defendant failed to establish that billy club is a weapon typically possessed by lawful
citizens for a lawful purpose).
10
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
or short sword. 8 /d. at 119-24. The court noted that the history of dirk knives "is
consistent with the American military usage of knives in general," tracing the dagger
from its 18th century Scottish origins through to the United States Marine Corps
"Ka-Bar fighting knife" issued in World War II to the weapon in the case before them.
. .
/d. at 121-22. The court further concluded that dirk knives are not "dangerous and
unusual" weapons and that DeCiccio's dirk knife fell within the term "arms" under the
Second Amendment. /d. at 128.
Oregon considered the text and history of its own state constitution's article I,
section 27 in order to determine the meaning of the term "arms." See State v. Kessler,
289 Or. 359, 361-70,614 P.2d 94 (1980). Washington's article I, section 24 was drawn
from Oregon's article I, section 27 and the constitution proposed by W. Lair Hill.
ROBERT F. UTTER & HUGH SPITZER, THE WASHINGTON STATE CONSTITUTION: A
REFERENCE GUIDE 39 (2002). Indeed, though we frequently decline to decide the
parameters of the right guaranteed by our own article I, section 24, we have cited with
approval. to the Oregon Suprem.e Court's interpretation of its analogous provision.
See, e.g., State v. Rupe, 101 Wn.2d 664, 707, 683 P.2d 671 (1984) (citing Kessler,
289 Or. 359 with approval); Montana, 129 Wn.2d at 601 n.9 (citing State v. Delgado,
298 Or. 395,400-01,692 P.2d 610 (1984)).
The Oregon Supreme Court has interpreted article I, section 27 of the Oregon
Constitution to protect objects as "arms" when the object is ''a kind of weapon, as
8 DeCiccio also considered the history, traditional use, and function of a police baton in holding
that it is "the kind of weapon traditionally used by the state for public safety purposes" and
therefore protected under the Second Amendment. 315 Conn. at 129-34.
11
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608~4.
modified by its modern design and function, [which] is of the sort commonly used by
individuals for personal defense during either the revolutionary and post-revolutionary
era, or in 1859 when Oregon's constitution was adopted." Delgado, 298 Or. at 400-01(emphasis added) (footnote omitted); State v. Christian, 354 Or. 22, 30, 307 P.3d 429(2013) (citing Kessler, 289 Or. 359). The Oregon Supreme Court has applied this
definition in considering whether a billy club, a switchblade knife, and a loaded firearm
are constitutionally protected arms. Kessler, 289 Or. 359 (billy club); Delgado, 298 Or.
395 (switchblade knife); Christian, 354 Or. 22 (loaded firearm).
In Delgado, Oregon specifically applied the definition of "arms" discussed
above in considering whether switchblade knives-a type of jackknife with a blade
between four and seven inches that folds into the handle and is released by a spring
mechanism-are arms under article I, section 27. 298 Or. at 402-03. In answering
this question, the court conducted a thorough historical analysis of the use of "fighting
knives" in America and concluded that certain knives, including switchblade knives,
have been commonly used for self-defense. /d. at 400-03. The court then held that
switchblades were arms under article I, section 27. /d. at 403.
B. Defining "arms"
We have never decided the parameters of the right to bear arms. See Rupe,
101 Wn.2d at 706-07 ("Although we do not decide the parameters of this right here,
defendant's behavior-possession of legal weapons-falls squarely within the
confines of the right guaranteed by Const. art. 1 § 24."); Montana, 129 Wn.2d at 591.
That question is properly before us now.
12
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
We hold that the right to bear arms protects instruments that are designed as
weapons traditionally or commonly used by law abiding citizens for the lawful purpose
of self-defense. In considering whether a weapon is an arm, we look to the historical
origins and use of that weapon, noting that a weapon does not need to be designed
for military use to be traditionally or commonly used for self-defense. We will also
consider the weapon's purpose and intended function.
Contrary to Evans's assertions, this approach-which is rooted in the United
States Supreme Court's decision in Heller and the Oregon Supreme Court's
interpretation of its state constitution's article I, section 27-is fully consistent with our
opinion in Montana. In particular, Oregon's focus on historical use and function
supports the idea, expressed by the lead opinion in Montana and relied on by the
concurring opinions thereto, that not all knives are "arms." Montana, 129 Wn.2d at
590-91 ("Under even the broadest possible construction, the term 'arms' extends only
to weapons designed as such, and not to every utensil, instrument, or thing which
might be used to strike or injure another person."). It is, in fact, this definitional
approach that resulted in our holding that fixed-blade paring knives and small kitchen
knives are not protected arms under the Washington State Constitution:
Notwithstanding my disagreement with the majority, I concur in the
result it reaches here because I am satisfied that the knives possessed
by McCullough and Montana are not arms. Although certain objects that
could fall into the generic definition of a dangerous knife may well be
considered arms, the knives possessed by McCullough and Montana (a
small paring knife and a filleting knife) are not, in my opinion, either
traditional or modern arms of self-defense. Therefore, they are not
afforded protected status by article I, section 24 of the state constitution.
13
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
/d. at 601 & n.9 (Alexander, J., concurring) (citing Delgado, 298 Or. 395, for the
proposition that "historically, certain knives, for example, bowie knives and swords,
have been commonly used for self-defense and, therefore, may be considered arms
under article I, section 27 of the Oregon Constitution"). 9
Evans does not demonstrate that our opinion in Montana is incorrect or harmful
or that the legal underpinnings of the decision have changed. A survey of the relevant
case law suggests instead that Montana provides an appropriate framework for
analyzing the right to bear arms that is both useful and true to the purpose of that right.
Further, the opinion is consistent with Heller and the decisions of other courts post-
Heller. We therefore reject Evans's invitation to reconsider Montana.
IV. Evans's Knife Is Not a Protected "Arm"
With this framework in mind, we turn to Evans's as-applied challenge to SMC
12A.14.080. Evans asserts that his knife is a constitutionally protected arm and that
the ordinance's prohibition against carrying fixed-blade knives is unconstitutional as
applied to him. We hold that Evans cannot establish that SMC 12A.14.080 is
unconstitutional as applied to him because his paring knife is not a constitutionally
protected arm.
Evans does not attempt to establish that his paring knife is a weapon designed
and traditionally used for self-defense. Indeed, he offers no meaningful distinction
between his paring knife and the paring knife at issue in Montana. He instead argues
9 Notably, Heller also cites favorably to the Oregon Supreme Court's discussion of lawful arms
in Kessler. See 544 U.S. at 624-25. Additionally, the Connecticut Supreme Court recently
noted that Oregon's definitional approach "mirrors the model employed by the United States
Supreme Court in [Heller]." DeCiccio, 315 Conn. at 117.
14
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
that all fixed-blade knives are constitutionally protected arms following Heller and that
his paring knife is thus protected because it is a fixed-blade knife. To make this
argument, Evans relies on language in Heller asserting that the term "arms"
encompasses "weapons that were not specifically designed for military use and were
not employed in a military capacity." Heller, 554 U.S. at 581. He is correct that the
Second Amendment protects the right to possess weapons designed for personal
protection as well as for use in a militia. /d. at 581, 592. But this cannot be understood
to grant a right for citizens to possess anything that may plausibly be used for self-
defense-the Second Amendment protects the right to carry a weapon for self-
defense. /d.
Evans also relies on DeCiccio and Delgado to reinforce his argument that all
fixed-blade knives are arms. 10 Neither case supports that interpretation: both cases
rely on an extensive historical and functional analysis of the specific knife at issue,
and DeCiccio expressly limits its holding to "knives with characteristics of the dirk knife
at issue in the present case." DeCiccio, 315 Conn. at 128 n.34; Delgado, 298 Or. at
400-03. The lengthy historical analysis and specific limiting language of both opinions
actually undermines Evans's argument and reinforces our conclusion that some
knives are not arms.
10We are aware of no decision holding that all knives are constitutionally protected arms,
regardless of historical use, origin, purpose, or function. Even advocates of the position that
knives should broadly be considered bearable arms following Heller also acknowledge that
some knives are designed as tools or utensils and are therefore not entitled to constitutional
protection. See, e.g., David B. Kopel, Clayton E. Cramer & Joseph Edward Olson, Knives
and the Second Amendment, 47 U. MICH. J. L. REFORM 167, 194 n.146 (2013).
15
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Evans compounds this error by setting up a false equivalence between the dirk
knife at issue in DeCiccio and the paring knife at issue in his own case. Highlighting
the DeCiccio court's holding that dirk knives are constitutionally protected arms
because they are weapons designed for and historically used in battle, Evans points
out a passage in American Knives suggesting that dirk knives are "equally useful for
meals." See HAROLD L. PETERSON, AMERICAN KNIVES: THE FIRST HiSTORY AND
COLLECTOR's GUIDE at 19 (1958). Evans then points out that kitchen knives are useful
for meals-they are inarguably designed and generally used for culinary purposes.
However, he also asserts that kitchen knives may be and have been used for self-
defense. Thus, he reasons that both dirk knives and paring knives are constitutionally
protected arms because both may be used for multiple purposes, including self-
defense.
This reasoning ignores the origins, use, purpose, and function of both knives.
It is true that some weapons may be used for culinary purposes, as it is also true that
many culinary utensils may be used when necessary for self-defense; but it does not
follow that all weapons are culinary utensils or that all culinary utensils are weapons.
Were we to adopt Evans's analysis and hold that a kitchen knife was a protected arm
because it could be used for self-defense, there would be no end to the extent of
utensils arguably constitutionally protected as arms. If a kitchen knife is a protected
arm, what about a rolling pin, which might be effectively wielded for protection or
attack? Or a frying pan? Or a heavy candlestick? "Admittedly, any hard object can
be used as a weapon, but it would be absurd to give every knife, pitchfork, rake, brick
16
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
or other object conceivably employable for personal defense constitutional protection
as 'arms."' Montana, 129 Wn.2d at 591 n.2.
Both the federal and state constitutions require us to give protection to certain
weapons that have been designed and commonly used for self-defense. Heller, 554
U.S. at 581-82; Kessler, 289 Or. at 368-69. The Connecticut Supreme Court
persuasively holds that dirk knives satisfy these criteria and are constitutionally
protected arms. However, the small knife found on Evans's person is a utility tool, not
a weapon. While almost any common object may be used as a weapon, that does not
necessarily mean that possession of otherwise innocuous objects that could be
wielded with malice will trigger the constitutional protections afforded to "arms." See
Montana, 129 Wn.2d at 590-91, 599, 401. Evans does not demonstrate that his paring
knife is a constitutionally protected arm. We therefore reject his as-applied challenge.
CONCLUSION
We affirm the Court of Appeals but on different grounds, holding that Evans's
paring knife is not an arm entitled to constitutional protection. Therefore, Evans cannot
establish that SMC 12A.14.080 is unconstitutional as applied to him and we affirm the
decision of the Court of Appeals.
17
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
WE CONCUR.
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
No. 90608-4
FAIRHURST, J. (dissenting)-! dissent because I believe that as applied to
Wayne Anthony Evans, a law-abiding citizen carrying a fixed-blade knife for self-
defense, former 1 Seattle Municipal Code (SMC) 12A.14.080 (1994) 2 violates the
right to bear arms under the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution.
Contrary to the majority, I would hold that there is insufficient evidence to determine
whether the fixed-blade knife that Evans carried is a paring knife, but that our
holding in City of Seattle v. Montana, 129 Wn.2d 583, 919 P.2d 1218 (1996)
(plurality opinion) must be abrogated following District of Columbia v. Heller, 554
U.S. 570, 128 S. Ct. 2783, 171 L. Ed. 2d 637 (2008). Consistent with Heller, I would
also hold that the SMC is presumptively unconstitutional. Alternatively, I would
1
The Seattle Municipal Code (SMC) was amended in September 2010 and recently in
November 2014. Because Evans violated the SMC in February 2010, he was charged under the
SMC in effect at that time, which was enacted in 1994. The changes made to the SMC since 1994
were primarily to the format of the ordinance and did not change it substantively.
2
Former SMC 12A.14.080(B) sets forth the general prohibition on carrying dangerous
knives but relies on former SMC 12A.14.010(A) and (B) (1994) to provide definitions for
"dangerous knife" and "fixed-blade knife." Given the interdependence of these provisions, I refer
to them in the text collectively as the "SMC."
1
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
subject the SMC to a heightened means-end test. I would hold that strict scrutiny is
the proper test and that the SMC is too broad to withstand such scrutiny.
The SMC makes it unlawful for a person to knowingly "[ c]arry concealed or
unconcealed on his or her person any dangerous knife, or carry concealed on his or
her person any deadly weapon other than a firearm." Former SMC 12A.14.080(B).
The term "dangerous knife" is defined as "any fixed-blade knife and any other knife
having a blade more than three and one-half inches (3 1/2") in length." Former SMC
12A.14.010(A) (emphasis added). A "fixed-blade knife" is
any knife, regardless of blade length, with a blade which is permanently
open and does not fold, retract or slide into the handle of the knife, and
includes any dagger, sword, bayonet, bolo knife, hatchet, axe, straight-
edged razor, or razor blade not in a package, dispenser or shaving
appliance.
Former SMC 12A.14.010(B) (emphasis added). The SMC has three exemptions,
none of which are applicable here. 3
3
The SMC's prohibition on carrying dangerous knives does not apply to the following:
A. A licensed hunter or licensed fisherman actively engaged in hunting and
fishing activity including education and travel related thereto; or
B. Any person immediately engaged in an activity related to a lawful
occupation which commonly requires the use of such knife, provided such
knife is carried unconcealed; provided further that a dangerous knife carried
openly in a sheath suspended from the waist of the person is not concealed
within the meaning of this subsection;
C. Any person carrying such knife in a secure wrapper or in a tool box while
traveling from the place of purchase, from or to a place of repair, or from or
to such person's home or place of business, or in moving from one (1) place
of abode or business to another, or while in such person's place of abode or
fixed place of business.
SMC 12A.14.100.
2
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
From the facts established at the trial court, Evans was carrying, for personal
protection, a fixed-blade knife with a black handle and a metal colored blade. The
fact that Evans carried the knife for self-defense is undisputed. Therefore, in order
to be entitled to relief under an as applied challenge, Evans must prove beyond a
reasonable doubt that his conviction under the SMC for carrying a fixed-blade knife
for personal protection was a violation of his constitutional right to bear arms. In re
Welfare ofA. W., 182 Wn.2d 689, 701, 344 P.3d 1186 (2015) (citing Sch. Dist. 's All.
for Adequate Funding of Special Educ. v. State, 170 Wn.2d 599, 605, 244 P.3d 1(201 0)).
The state and federal rights to bear arms are different and mandate separate
interpretation. State v. Jorgenson, 179 Wn.2d 145, 152, 312 P.3d 960 (2013). Where
possible, this court resolves state constitutional questions first before turning to
federal questions.Jd.
A. Right to bear arms under article I, section 24 of the Washington Constitution
According to the majority, this court's precedent interpreting article I, section
24 dictates that the fixed-blade knife that Evans carried is not a protected arm under
the Washington Constitution. However, therein lies the problem.
This court issued a divided opinion in Montana where it considered a similar
challenge to former SMC 12A.14.080 (1987), but did so exclusively under article I,
section 24. The four justices who signed the lead opinion found that the SMC did
3
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
not violate the state constitution because it was a reasonable regulation under the
state's police powers. Montana, 129 Wn.2d at 592. The lead opinion, however,
declined to reach the question of whether knives constitute "arms" under article I,
section 24. Id. at 591. While the lead opinion did not decide whether the knives at
issue were arms, it did state that "the term 'arms' extends only to weapons designed
as such, and not to every utensil, instrument, or thing which might be used to strike
or injure another person." ld.
Between the two concurrences in Montana, five justices of this court agreed
that the knives-a filleting knife and a small paring knife-did not qualify as arms
for purposes of article I, section 24. Two justices concurred in the result of the lead
opinion, but on the limited basis that the knives were not arms for purposes of article
I, section 24. ld. at 599 (Durham, C.J., concurring). Three justices also agreed that
the knives at issue were not arms, but expressed concern that in a different case the
SMC could unreasonably restrict a citizen's right to carry arms for self-defense.Jd.
at 600-01 (Alexander, J., concurring). Justice Alexander also expressed concern that
the SMC lacked, as it continues to lack, an exemption for carrying arms "for the
purpose recognized in the state constitution, self-defense." Jd.at 601 (Alexander, J.,
concurring). Nevertheless, the five concurring justices reasoned that while certain
knives covered by the SMC could be considered arms, the knives possessed by the
petitioners in Montana were not arms.Jd. Because five justices agreed that the knives
4
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
in question were not arms under article I, section 24, this court's holding in Montana
is that the ordinary knives possessed by the petitioners in that case are not arms under
article I, section 24. See State v. Valdez, 167 Wn.2d 761, 775, 224 P.3d 751 (2009)
(noting that the narrowest ground on which a majority agrees represents the holding
ofthe case); see also Wright v. Terrell, 162 Wn.2d 192, 195, 170 P.3d 570 (2007).
I disagree with the majority's conclusion that the Montana court's holding
provides "an appropriate framework ... that is both useful and true to the purpose
of the right." Majority at 11-12. As noted above, the only precedential holding in
Montana was that the knives in that case were not arms under article I, section 24.
Given the splintered decision in Montana, it offers little analysis for evaluating what
constitutes an arm under article I, section 24 of the Washington Constitution. In my
view, especially following Heller, this court must provide a clear model for
evaluating whether an object can be considered an arm. This model must satisfy the
requirements of the Washington Constitution and must also be consistent with the
Second Amendment. The Montana decision provides no such guidance. The
majority's attempt to reconcile its decision with Montana serves only to complicate
the analysis, particularly in light of Montana's exceedingly narrow holding.
The record here presents differing descriptions of the knife Evans carried,
casting doubt on the majority's conclusion. The arresting officer described the length
of Evans' knife blade, but the actual length was never established in the record. We
5
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
know only that the knife was of a size that would fit into the front pocket of the pants
Evans wore on the night of his arrest. The officer testified that the knife had a black
'
handle with a metal colored blade, was covered in a plastic sheath, and had a fixed
blade. This description could define any number of knives, some of which would
undoubtedly be entitled to protection. The officer also provided the alternate
description that the knife resembled a kitchen knife or paring knife. The officer never
elaborated on his basis for labeling Evans' knife a kitchen knife, nor did the officer
ever state what constituted a kitchen knife or paring knife in his opinion.
Unfortunately, Evans' knife was destroyed following his jury trial, so only the trial
court had the opportunity to view it.
Based on the facts established at trial, I cannot so easily classify Evans' knife
as a paring knife. I think it unwise to base an analysis on an uncertain fact, but
because Evans' Second Amendment claim is determinative, resolution of the exact
type of knife is unnecessary. Without resolving whether Evans' lmife fits into the
category of unprotected lmives defined in Montana, the fact that Evans possessed a
fixed-blade knife for self-defense is sufficient for this inquiry. This is especially true
in light of the Heller Court's recognition that the Second Amendment protects an
individual's right to keep and bear arms for the purpose of self-defense.
The federal constitution operates as a floor that the state constitutional
protections cannot fall beneath. State v. Sieyes, 168 Wn.2d 276, 292, 225 P.3d 9956
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
(2010). The Washington Constitution can offer greater or equal protections, but it
may not offer lesser protections than its federal counterpart. Id. While this court
reviews the state and federal constitutional provisions separately, if Evans can
successfully show that the SMC violates his Second Amendment right to bear arms,
it would abrogate our decision in Montana, making his state constitutional challenge
moot. Thus, even accepting that Evans' knife should be classified as a kitchen knife
and that it is therefore unprotected given Montana's limited holding, this court must
still determine whether Evans' knife is protected under the Second Amendment.
B. Right to bear arms under the Second Amendment
Evans' federal challenge controls the outcome of this case. In matters of
federal law, this court is bound by the decisions of the United States Supreme Court.
W:G. ClarkConstr. Co. v. Pac. Nw. Reg'! Council ofCarpenters, 180 Wn.2d 54, 62,
322 P.3d 1207 (2014). "Decisions of the federal circuit courts are 'entitled to great
weight' but are not binding." !d. (quoting Home Ins. Co. ofN. Y. v. N Pac. Ry., 18
Wn.2d 798, 808, 140 P.2d 507 (1943)).
In Heller, the Supreme Court held that the District of Columbia ordinance
completely prohibiting citizens from carrying handguns in their homes violated the
Second Amendment. 554 U.S. at 636. The Court found that the amendment was
7
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
divided into two parts-a prefatory clause4 and an operative clause. 5 Id. at 577.
"[T]he Second Amendment's prefatory clause announces the purpose for which the
right was codified: to prevent elimination of the militia. The prefatory clause does
not suggest that preserving the militia was the only reason Americans valued the
ancient right; most undoubtedly thought it even more important for self-defense."
Id. at 599. The right to self-defense is central to the Second Amendment, the core of
which is to protect oneself in the home. I d. at 628-30. Therefore, the Court held that
the handgun ban at issue, which amounted to a prohibition of an entire class of arms
used by law-abiding Americans for self-defense, was unconstitutional under any
level of scrutiny. Id. at 628. The Court noted that the right to bear arms is not
unlimited and that there is a historical tradition of prohibiting the carrying of
dangerous and unusual weapons. I d. at 626-27.
"Heller aptly has been characterized as having adopted a 'two-pronged
approach to [s]econd [a]mendment challenges."' State v. DeCiccio, 315 Conn. 79,
111, 105 A.3d 165 (2014) (alterations in original) (quoting United States v.
Marzzarella, 614 F.3d 85, 89 (3d Cir. 2010)); Peruta v. County of San Diego, 742
F.3d 1144, 1150 (2014). First, the court should ask whether the challenged law
4"A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state." U.S. CONST.
amend. II.
5
"[T]he right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed." Id.8
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
imposes a burden on conduct that falls within the scope of the Second Amendment.
Peruta, 742 F.3d at 1150. If it does, the court must next evaluate the law under some
form of means-end scrutiny to determine if the law infringes on the Second
Amendment right. !d. If the law passes the scrutiny then it is constitutional; if the
law fails it is invalid. Id.
1. Scope of the Second Amendment
To examine the scope of the Second Amendment, the proper inquiry asks if
the restricted activity-here, the carrying of a fixed-blade knife in public by a law-
abiding citizen for self-defense-falls within the scope of Second Amendment
protections. Although the holding in Heller leaves open the questions of whether a
--- ---- -------- ---- - --- - -- -- - - - - --
knife is considered an arm under the Second Amendment and whether the right to
defend oneself extends beyond the home, other pre- and post-Heller courts have
considered these issues.
a) A fixed-blade knife is an arm under the Second Amendment
The Court in Heller found that the Second Amendment protections extend to
only certain types of weapons. 554 U.S. at 627. Evans asks us to find that the knife
he carried is an arm subject to the protection of the Second Amendment.
In Heller, the Court not only held that the Second Amendment protects an
individual right, but also set forth definitions for the amendment's terms. Id. at 581.
Heller clarified that the term "arm" is defined broadly to encompass all bearable
9
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
arms that were common at the time of the founding and could be used for self-
defense. Id. at 582, 627. The Court stated that the term "arms" has the same meaning
today as it did in the 18th century. Id. According to 18th century dictionaries, "arms"
were defined as "'[w]eapons of offence, or armour of defence."' !d. at 581 (alteration
in original) (quoting 1 DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 106 (4th ed. 1978)).
In addition, the term "arms" is defined as "'any thing that a man wears for his
defence, or takes into his hands, or useth in wrath to cast at or strike another."' !d.
(quoting 1 A NEW AND COMPLETE LAW DICTIONARY (1771)). Further, the Court
found the term "arms" was not limited to weapons that were specifically designed
for military use, and the phrase "'keep and bear arms"' does not have a special
military meaning. !d. at 592 (quoting 49 THE LONDON MAGAZINE OR GENTLEMEN'S
MONTHLY INTELLIGENCER 467 (1780)). To "keep arms" means to have or possess a
weapon. Id. at 582. To "bear arms" means to carry a weapon for the particular
purpose of confrontation. !d. at 5 83. The Court noted that the protections of the
Second Amendment extend to all instruments that constitute bearable arms. Id. at
582.
As explained above, Washington case law does not resolve the question of
whether a fixed-blade knife is an arm under the Second Amendment, nor did the
Supreme Court specifically address this question in Heller. However, sister states
have considered the issue.
10
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
In an as-applied challenge, the Connecticut Supreme Court in DeCiccio
recently held that a fixed-blade dirk knife 6 is an arm under the Second Amendment. 7
315 Conn. at 128. The court in DeCiccio was guided by the definition of"arms" set
forth in Heller and the analytical approach articulated in Heller and State v. Delgado,
298 Or. 395, 692 P.2d 610 (1984). DeCiccio, 315 Conn. at 128. In Delgado, a pre-
Heller decision, the Oregon Supreme Court held that a switchblade knife was an arm
for purposes of the Oregon Constitution. 8 298 Or. at 403. "'The appropriate inquiry
... is whether the weapon, as modified by its modern design and function, is of the
sort commonly used by individuals for personal defense during either the
revolutionary or post-revolutionary era."' DeCiccio, 315 Conn. at 118 (quoting
Delgado, 298 Or. at 400-01). In Delgado, the Oregon Supreme Court examined
various books discussing the history and use of knives to determine that the
switchblade knife was used for both labor and combat and found that knives
6
"' A dirk is a long straight-bladed dagger or short sword usually defined by comparison
[to] the ceremonial weapons carried by Scottish highlanders and naval officers in the [e]ighteenth
and [n]ineteenth [c]enturies.'" DeCiccio, 315 Conn. at 121 (alterations in original) (quoting
Commonwealth v. Miller, 22 Mass. App. 694, 695,497 N.E.2d 29 (1986)).
7Relevant here, DeCiccio claimed that the statute violated his Second Amendment right by
prohibiting him from using a vehicle to transport weapons for the purpose of moving to a new
residence. DeCiccio, 315 Conn. at 128. After applying intermediate scrutiny, the court agreed with
DeCiccio and held that the statute unconstitutionally infringed on his Second Amendment right.
I d.
8Article I, section 27 of the Oregon Constitution states that "[t]he people shall have the
right to bear arms for the defence of themselves, and the State, but the Military shall be kept in
strict subordination to the civil power."
11
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
generally have played an important role in American life since the founding. 9
Delgado, 298 Or. at 401-03.
The DeCiccio court completed a similar historical inquiry and found that
knives were important for American soldiers and that dirk knives in particular were
used by soldiers in the American military. 315 Conn. at 119. Moreover, consistent
with Heller, the court found that dirk knives were not dangerous or unusual weapons,
excluding them from Second Amendment protections. Id. at 122. In its reasoning,
the court noted that dirk knives have a limited lethality, especially compared to
handguns, and that long-blade knives, like dirk knives, were common for militia
purposes. Id. at 120, 123. Therefore, the court found that dirk knives fell into the
category of weapons protected by the Second Amendment. Id. at 128.
I would apply a similar framework to the one used by the court in DeCiccio
to determine whether a particular weapon is an arm under the Second Amendment.
My approach would ask two questions. First, does the weapon at issue satisfy the
broad definition of an "arm" as set forth in Heller? In other words, is the weapon a
bearable arm according to the 18th century definition? If not, the inquiry ends. If
yes, then the second question asks, is the weapon of the type protected by the Second
9
Both Delgado and DeCiccio provide a detailed historical inquiry and examination of the
use of knives, which we do not find necessary to repeat. See Delgado, 298 Or. at 40 1-04; DeCiccio,
315 Conn. at 112-23; see also State v. Kessler, 289 Or. 359,369-70,614 P.2d 94 (1980).
12
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
Amendment? This involves assessing whether people used an analogous weapon for
self-defense at the time of the founding. As part of this assessment, the evaluating
court must determine whether the weapon was "typically possessed by law-abiding
citizens for lawful purposes." Heller, 554 U.S. at 625. If the weapon is dangerous or
unusual, it is not protected by the Second Amendment. Id. at 627. Heller's definition
of "arms" and the corresponding analysis differ from the Montana language relied
on by the majority. 10 Because the Heller definition protects a broader range of items
as arms, this court should abrogate Montana.
I would find that a fixed-blade knife carried for self-defense falls within the
scope of Second Amendment protections. A fixed-blade knife is a bearable arm
according to the Court's definition in Heller. Knives can be carried by an individual
and used as a weapon. See David B. Kopel, Clayton E. Cramer & Joseph Edward
Olson, Knives and the Second Amendment, 47 U. MICH. J.L. REFORM 167, 191-92
(2013). Furthermore, although militia use is not necessary to show that an item is a
Second Amendment arm, militia use is sufficient to do so, and scholars have
recognized that "[k]nives are indisputably militia arms." Id. at 192. Sources
discussing the history of knives demonstrate that fixed-blade knives were
10
"[T]he term 'arms' extends only to weapons designed as such, and not to every utensil,
instrument, or thing which might be used to strike or injure another person." Montana, 129 Wn.2d
at 591.
13
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
traditionally used for many purposes, including self-defense. See HAROLD L.
PETERSON, AMERICAN KNIVES: THE FIRST HISTORY AND COLLECTORS' GUIDE 19-21
(1958).
A fixed-blade knife satisfies the second part of the inquiry because citizens
commonly used knives at the time of the founding. See Delgado, 298 Or. at 401(Oregon Supreme Court noting that every colonist had a knife that was used for self-
defense, as well as to obtain food and fashion raw materials); DeCiccio, 315 Conn.
at 189 (finding that knives have been a traditional part of American military
equipment). Because fixed-blade knives were used by citizens for many purposes,
including self-defense, they are not dangerous or unusual weapons and are therefore
protected by the Second Amendment, consistent with the Court's decision in
Heller.U 554 U.S. at 626-27.
b) The scope of the Second Amendment protection extends beyond
the home
In Heller, the Supreme Court held that the core of the Second Amendment is
the protection of the right to defend oneself inside the home. Id. at 630. Evans asserts
that the right extends to protect one's right to bear arms outside of the home for self-
11
Consistent with this analysis but reaching the opposite holding, the Massachusetts
Supreme Court recently held that a stun gun was not within the scope of the Second Amendment
protections because it was not in common use at the time of the enactment of the amendment and
was considered per se dangerous at common law. Commonwealth v. Caetano, 470 Mass. 774, 26
N.E.3d 688, 693-94 (2015).
14
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
defense. The Supreme Court has yet to address the issue. See Moore v. Madigan,
702 F.3d 933, 945 (7th Cir. 2012). As support for his argument, Evans primarily
relies on Peruta.
In Peruta, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals addressed a challenge to the San
Diego County policy that required an applicant to demonstrate good cause for a
permit to carry a concealed weapon. 742 F.3d at 1148. The plaintiffs asserted that
the county's interpretation of the good cause requirement infringed on their right to
bear arms under the Second Amendment by denying them a permit to carry a
concealed weapon for self-defense. !d. The federal district court assumed, without
deciding, that the right to bear arms applied outside of the home but found that the
law survived intermediate scrutiny. !d. On appeal, the Ninth Circuit held that the
right to bear arms extends outside the home if the arm is carried for self-defense by
a law-abiding citizen. !d. at 1160.
Acknowledging that the Heller decision was not dispositive, the Peruta court
followed the framework established in Heller to determine the constitutionality of
the restrictions on carrying a firearm outside the home. !d. at 1150-52. The court
began by examining the terms of the Second Amendment in their historical context.
!d. The Peruta court stated that the definition of "bear" in the Second Amendment
was to '"wear, bear, or carry ... upon the person or in the clothing or pocket, for the
purpose ... of being armed and ready for offensive or defensive action in a case of
15
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
conflict with another person.'" Id. at 1152 (alterations in original) (internal quotation
marks omitted) (quoting Heller, 554 U.S. at 584). Putting the term "bear" into
context, the Peruta court found that one does not "bear arms" only in their own home
for protection. I d. The court noted that historically, frontiersmen would not leave the
house without bearing arms for self-defense. I d. Additionally, the Peruta court found
the Court's assertion in Heller that the Second Amendment right is most acute in the
home, implies that the right must exist outside the home. Id. The Peruta court held
that the plain meaning of the term "bear arms" leads to no other conclusion than the
scope of the Second Amendment extends outside of the home. Id. at 1154.
In addition to a textual analysis of the Second Amendment, the Peruta court
undertook a historical analysis to determine the original public understanding of the
amendment's scope and meaning. Id. at 1153-54. In reviewing historical texts from
the time of the founding through the early 19th century, the court noted that "several
important constitutional treatises in circulation at the time of the Second
Amendment's ratification" supported Heller's definition of"bear arms." Id. at 1154.
The Peruta court also found that the majority of 19th century courts agreed that the
Second Amendment right extended outside the home and included, at a minimum,
the right to carry an operable weapon for the purpose of lawful self-defense. I d. at
1160. At the conclusion of the court's textual and historical analysis, it found that
"the carrying of an operable handgun outside the home for the lawful purpose of
16
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
self-defense, though subject to traditional restrictions, constitutes 'bear[ing] Arms'
within the meaning of the Second Amendment." !d. at 1166 (alteration in original).
The court found that the right to carry a firearm outside the home for self-defense is
part of the core right of the Second Amendment. !d. at 1167. Because the Peruta
court found that San Diego County's law restricted a "typical responsible, law-
abiding citizen to bear arms in public for the lawful purpose of self-defense," the law
was unconstitutional under any level of scrutiny. !d. at 1169.
The court in Peruta was correct that the Second Amendment's language may
imply that right. !d. at 1152; see also Drake v. Filko, 724 F.3d 426, 430 (3d Cir.
2013); Moore, 702 F.3d at 942 (finding that the right to bear arms for self-defense is
just as important outside the home as inside the home); United States v.
Masciandaro, 638 F.3d 458,468 (4th Cir. 2011) (Niemeyer, J., specially concurring)
("Consistent with the historical understanding of the right to keep and bear arms
outside the home, the Heller Court's description of its actual holding also implies
that a broader right exists."); Eugene Volokh, Implementing the Right to Keep and
Bear Arms for Self-Defense: An Analytical Framework and a Research Agenda, 56
UCLA L. REv. 1443, 1515 (2009) (explaining post-Heller, albeit in the context of
firearms: "self-defense has to take place wherever the person happens to be," which
is not limited to one's home).
17
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
However, not all courts have found that the right to carry an arm outside the
home for self-defense is a part of the core right of the Second Amendment, as the
Peruta court did. See Drake, 724 F.3d at 430-31 (refusing to extend core protections
from Heller outside the home but acknowledging there could be some Second
Amendment protection outside of the home); Kachalsky v. County of Westchester,
701 F.3d 81, 89, 93-94 (2d Cir. 2012); Masciandaro, 638 F.3d at 475 (Wilkinson,
J., concurring) ("There may or may not be a Second Amendment right in some places
beyond the home, but we have no idea what those places are [or] what the criteria
for selecting them should be.").
While most courts have found that the right applies outside the home, courts
have differed in the level of protection that should be afforded to one's right to bear
arms outside of the home for self-defense. Compare Kachalsky, 701 F.3d at 89
(noting that proper cause requirement for carrying a handgun outside the home did
not impact the core of the Second Amendment and that the government has greater
ability to regulate activities affecting the public), with Moore, 702 F.3d at 940
(finding that the right to self-defense is just as important outside the home as it is
inside the home).
In my view, the scope of the Second Amendment has some application outside
the home. However, whether the law actually infringes the Second Amendment right
18
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
will depend on the extent of regulation and the type of activity regulated. See United
States v. Chovan, 735 F.3d 1127, 1138 (9th Cir. 2013).
I would find that Evans' activity was within the scope of the Second
Amendment because he was carrying his fixed-blade knife for self-defense, a fact
that remained unchallenged by the city of Seattle (City), and seemingly ignored by
the majority. However, because the Second Amendment right is not absolute, the
inquiry is not complete. See Heller, 554 U.S. at 595. Since I believe the law imposes
a burden on Evans' Second Amendment right, I would evaluate whether the law
interferes with that right by assessing the law under some form of means-end
scn1tiny. Given the nature of the ordinance, strict scrutiny is appropriate, and the
City has not met its burden.
2. Means-end scrutiny
Evans makes three arguments regarding the level of scrutiny that this court
should apply to the SMC. He first asserts that, like the law in Heller, the SMC
destroys his Second Amendment right to self..:defense and thus is unconstitutional
under any level of scrutiny. In the alternative, he argues that strict scrutiny should
apply. 12 Finally, he argues that even if this court applies intermediate scrutiny, the
law will be unconstitutional.
12
Amicus Washington Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers (WACDL) also argues
that strict scrutiny should be applied to the SMC. Br. of Amicus Curiae WACDL at 11-19.
19
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
The first step is to ascertain the appropriate level of scrutiny. In Heller, the
Court did not establish a level of scrutiny that should be applied to laws burdening
the right to bear arms, holding instead that the law in that case would fail under any
level. 554 U.S. at 628-29, 634. The Court did, however, reject rational basis scrutiny
as too low of a standard to protect the right to bear arms.Jd. at 628 n.27. Following
Heller, federal courts have used different levels of scrutiny depending on the type of
law challenged and the extent to which it burdens the Second Amendment right. See,
e.g., Kachalsky, 701 F.3d at 96-97 (applying intermediate scrutiny); Drake, 724 F.3d
at 436 (applying a level of scrutiny less than strict scrutiny when the law does not
burden the right to protect oneself in the home); Ezell v. City of Chicago, 651 F .3d
684, 708 (7th Cir. 2011) (applying a level of scrutiny between strict and intermediate
to a law creating an elaborate permitting scheme dictating the number and type of
firearms allowed in the home).
Adding a layer of complexity to the scrutiny determination is the Supreme
Court's holding inMcDonaldv. City of Chicago, 561 U.S. 742,778, 130 S. Ct. 3020,
177 L. Ed. 2d 894 (2010) that the right to bear arms is a fundamental right. Strict
scrutiny is generally applied to laws burdening fundamental rights. See Heller v.
WACDL performs a State v. Gunwall, 106 Wn.2d 54, 61-62, 720 P.2d 808 (1986) analysis and
finds that article I, section 24 is more protective than the Second Amendment and thus strict
scrutiny must apply. Br. of Amicus Curiae WACDL at 11-19. Neither party presented this court
with an analysis of the Gunwall factors. Such an analysis is not necessary here because Evans'
Second Amendment claim controls the outcome of this case.
20
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
DistrictofColumbia, 399 U.S. App. D.C. 314,670 F.3d 1244, 1256 (2011) (Heller
II). However, there are exceptions. Id. Courts have compared the Second
Amendment right to the First Amendment right, where certain regulations are
permissible so long as they survive intermediate scrutiny. Id. Like the First
Amendment, "the level of scrutiny applicable under the Second Amendment surely
'depends on the nature of the conduct being regulated and the degree to which the
challenged law burdens the right."' Id. at 1257 (quoting United States v. Chester,
628 F.3d 673, 682 (4th Cir. 2010)). This reasoning is consistent with Heller. 554
U.S. at 595 ("[W]e do not read the Second Amendment to protect the right of citizens
to carry arms for any sort of confrontation, just as we do not read the First
Amendment to protect the right of citizens to speak for any purpose."). In Heller II,
the court found that intermediate scrutiny is appropriate where laws "'do[] not
severely limit the possession of firearms."' 670 F.3d at 1257 (alteration in original)
(quoting Marzzarella, 614 F.3d at 97).
Although outcomes have varied, courts have agreed as a general matter that
"'the level of scrutiny applied to gun control regulations depends on the regulation's
burden on the Second Amendment right."' Peruta, 742 F.3d at 1167 (quoting
Nordyke v. King, 681 F.3d 1041, 1045-46 (9th Cir. 2012)). To determine the level
of scrutiny, courts have used a two-pronged test that requires the court to consider
21
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
(1) how close the law comes to the core ofthe Second Amendment right and (2) the
severity of the law's burden on the right. Chovan, 735 F.3d at 1138.
To analyze the first prong-that is, to determine how close the law comes to
the core of the Second Amendment-courts rely on Heller's holding that the
Amendment's core is '"the right of law-abiding, responsible citizens to use arms in
defense ofhearth and home."' Id. (quoting Heller, 554 U.S. at 635); see also Jackson
v. City & County of San Francisco, 746 FJd 953, 960 (9th Cir. 2014).
To analyze the second prong-that is, to determine the burden placed on the
Second Amendment right-the Ninth Circuit explained that laws regulating only the
manner in which persons may exercise their Second Amendment right are less
burdens.ome than laws that bar the exercise of the right completely. See Peruta, 742
F.3d at 1158; Chovan, 735 F.3d at 1146. The court in Peruta recognized that
historically, there was a distinction between openly carried and concealed weapons.
742 F.3d at 1164. Statutes prohibiting the carrying of concealed weapons did not
conflict with the Second Amendment because they merely regulated the manner in
which arms were carried. I d. at 1165. While States can regulate the manner in which
an arm is carried, the Peruta court found that the State cannot completely prohibit a
citizen from carrying an arm outside the home. Id. at 1165-66.
Severe restrictions on the core right to the Second Amendment trigger strict
scrutiny, while less severe burdens have been reviewed under some lesser form of
22
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
heightened scrutiny, such as intermediate scrutiny. See id. at 1167-68. In cases where
the law completely destroys the right protected under the Second Amendment, rather
than just burdening it, the courts have found that no level of heightened scrutiny is
necessary because the law would fail under all levels. I d. (citing Heller, 554 U.S. at
628-29). On the other hand, laws that have left open alternative channels for self-
defense do not place a substantial burden on the Second Amendment right. 13 See
Marzzarella, 614 F.3d at 97 (finding that intermediate scrutiny applied to a law that
prohibited the possession of firearms without a serial number because it left the
ability to own marked firearms untouched); see also Chovan, 735 F.3d at 1138
(noting that a law that prohibited domestic violence misdemeanants from owning
firearms, but exempted those with expunged, pardoned, or set-aside convictions, had
a lessened burden on the right to bear arms than a law that did not have any
exemptions limiting applicability).
This court has undertaken a similar analysis as those taken by the federal
courts to determine what level of scrutiny should apply to laws burdening the Second
13
In addition, the Court in Heller noted that the Second Amendment right is not absolute
and identified a nonexclusive list of "longstanding prohibitions on the possession of firearms by
felons and the mentally ill, or laws forbidding the carrying of firearms in sensitive places such as
schools and government buildings, or laws imposing conditions and qualifications on the
commercial sale of arms." 554 U.S. at 626-27; see also Jorgenson, 179 Wn.2d at 159. The SMC,
however, does not fall into one of these presumptively lawful categories, nor is it analogous to any
of the stated examples.
23
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
Amendment right to bear arms. See Jorgenson, 179 Wn.2d at 161 (holding that
intermediate scrutiny was appropriate where the law at issue was not as restrictive
as the law examined in Heller); see also Sieyes, 168 Wn.2d at 294 (holding that strict
scrutiny of the law was not appropriate where the parties did not show that the law
burdened the Second Amendment). In Jorgenson, the defendant asserted that former
RCW 9.41.040(2)(a)(iv) (2005), which prohibits a person who is "free on bond or
personal recognizance pending trial, appeal, or sentencing for a serious offense"
from possessing a firearm, violated his Second Amendment right. 179 Wn.2d at 167
n.1 (Wiggins, J., dissenting). This court noted in Jorgenson that courts have applied
differing levels of scrutiny depending on the limit imposed on the Second
Amendment right and the type of law at issue. Id. at 159-60. The court then
compared the challenged statute to the District of Columbia law in Heller and found
that the Washington statute, unlike the law in Heller, did not apply to all citizens and
was limited in duration. !d. Therefore, since the statute placed less of an imposition
on the right to bear arms, this court determined that intermediate scrutiny should
apply. Id. at 162.
Evans contends that, like the laws in Peruta and Heller, the SMC fails under
any level of scrutiny because it infringes the core right of the Second Amendment
by severely burdening his right to carry an arm for self-defense. According to Evans,
24
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
the SMC bans citizens from carrying an entire class of arms that is a popular choice
for self-defense.
a) Applying the first prong: core of the Second Amendment
First, I would examine whether the SMC implicates the core of the Second
Amendment. The court in Peruta recognized that the core of the Second Amendment
protections extend outside the home. 742 F.3d at 1167. However, the court also
noted that Second Amendment protections are most acute within the home. Id. at
1153. Most courts have stated that a law implicates the core of the Second
Amendment when it restricts a law-abiding citizen from possessing arms within the
home for self-defense. See, e.g., Jackson, 746 F.3d at 963 (noting that the law
implicates the core of the Second Amendment because it prevents law-abiding
citizens from possessing handguns in the home); Chovan, 735 F.3d at 1138 (holding
that a law did not implicate the core of the Second Amendment because it prevented
only those convicted of a domestic violence misdemeanor from possessing an arm).
SMC 12A. 14.1 OO(C) exempts the proscription of carrying a fixed-blade knife
while one is in their place of abode or place of business. Because the SMC does not
prevent Evans from having a knife in his home for the purpose of self-defense, this
law does not implicate, as strongly, the core protections of the Second Amendment
as the law did in Heller. However, because the law prohibits all citizens from
carrying a knife for self-protection or self-defense, the law is similar to the county's
25
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
law examined in Peruta and, at least partially, implicates the core protections of the
Second Amendment.
b) Applying the second prong: burden on the Second Amendment
right
Second, I would determine the extent of the burden the SMC places on one's
Second Amendment right. 14 Because the Second Amendment is a fundamental right,
some form of heightened scrutiny is appropriate. Moreover, the SMC places a
substantial burden on a law-abiding citizen's right to bear arms outside the home for
self-defense, making strict scrutiny the proper analysis.
The Peruta court found that the county's law severely burdened a citizen's
Second Amendment right, such that it was presumptively unconstitutional. 724 F.3d
at 1169. The court noted that it was not enough that the San Diego County law
allowed some people to bear arms in some places at some times. Id. Because the
Second Amendment confers an individual right, the court asserted that the
appropriate question is whether the law allows a typical law-abiding citizen to bear
arms in public for self-defense. Id. Similarly, the Court in Heller found that the
severity of the District of Columbia ordinance failed under any level of scrutiny
14
The extent of the burden depends on whether the class of arms here is fixed-blade knives
or knives generally. Heller considered handguns as an entire class of arms. Like Heller, I examine
the SMC by considering fixed-blade knives as a class of arms.
26
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
because it "amounts to a prohibition of an entire class of 'arms' that is
overwhelmingly chosen by American society for [self-defense]." 554 U.S. at 628.
Like the law in Heller, the SMC prohibits the carrying of an entire class of
arms used for self-defense and does more than merely regulate the manner in which
one may carry an arm for self-defense. There is no permit option available to carry
either a concealed or unconcealed fixed-blade knife. Evans contends that a fixed-
blade knife has many qualities that make it superior for self-defense and presented
evidence that a knife is a very popular weapon for self-defense. Analogous to the
law in Peruta, the SMC prohibits typical law-abiding citizens from carrying an arm
of their choice in public for self-defense. Indeed, the SMC may place a more severe
burden on the Second Amendment than did the law in Peruta. The law evaluated by
the Peruta court theoretically allowed some people to receive a permit under the
county's law. In contrast, the SMC prohibits everyone, with limited exceptions, from
carrying a fixed-blade knife for self-defense. Moreover, the SMC regulation extends
to carrying the knife concealed or unconcealed, amounting to a complete prohibition.
The SMC implicates the core of the Second Amendment by prohibiting law-
abiding citizens from possessing protected arms for self-defense and thereby
severely burdens the right to bear arms. Thus, like the laws in Peruta and Heller, the
SMC is presumptively unconstitutional.
27
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
Although some courts have noted that where the law leaves open alternative
channels for self-defense, the burden placed on the Second Amendment is lessened,
the Peruta and Heller courts did not accept this argument. 15 The Heller Court
reasoned that because the handgun is the most popular weapon for self-defense, a
complete ban is invalid. ld.
Evans has presented evidence that knives are popular and appealing for self-
defense. Thus, given Heller's reasoning, my conclusion-that the SMC is
presumptively unconstitutional-is not altered by the fact that Washington's firearm
laws 16 and the SMC 17 may permit possession of other arms.
However, even if we accept, as some courts have, that alternative channels for
self-defense lessen the burden on the Second Amendment, the SMC must still be
subjected to the application of a means-end scrutiny test, which it cannot survive.
As noted above, strict scrutiny is presumed when a law burdens a fundamental right.
The SMC also places a substantial burden on the right to bear arms and does more
15
Compare DeCiccio, 315 Conn. at 141-42 (applying intermediate scrutiny because the
law's exceptions allowed some to own a "myriad of other weapons that fall within the purview of
the [S]econd [A]mendment"), with Heller, 554 U.S. at 629 ("It is no answer to say ... that it is
permissible to ban the possession of handguns so long as the possession of other firearms ... is
allowed.").
16
Washington firearm laws preempt the SMC. See, e.g., RCW 9.41.050 (permitting
Washington residents to carry a concealed pistol on their person so long as they have a license),
.270(1) (allowing firearms to be openly carried provided such carriage does not "warrant[] alarm
for the safety of other persons").
17
See former SMC 12A.14.010(C) (allowing the possession of a knife with a blade less
than three and one-half inches so long as the blade folds into the handle).
28
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
than simply regulate the manner in which an arm may be carried. Therefore, the law
must be subjected to some form of heightened scrutiny. See Chovan, 735 F.3d at
1138-39. Because the SMC places a substantial burden on the right to self-defense,
it must have a strong justification, and, therefore, strict scrutiny is appropriate. Heller
II, 670 F.3d at 1257 ("[A] regulation that imposes a substantial burden upon the core
right of self-defense protected by the Second Amendment must have a strong
justification, whereas a regulation that imposes a less substantial burden should be
proportionately easier to justify.").
c) Application of strict scrutiny
To survive strict scrutiny, a law must be narrowly tailored to a compelling
governmental purpose. Sieyes, 168 Wn.2d at 294. In Montana, this court found that
"[former] SMC 12A.14.080 furthers a substantial public interest in safety,
addressing the threat posed by knife-wielding individuals and those disposed to
brawls and quarrels, through reducing the number and availability of fixed-blade
knives in public places in Seattle." 129 Wn.2d at 592. The City has a compelling
interest in protecting the community from crime. See Schall v. Martin, 467 U.S. 253,
264, 104 S. Ct. 2403, 81 L. Ed. 2d 207 (1984). The issue, then, is whether the SMC
is narrowly tailored to the City's compelling interest. In my view, it is not.
For a law to be narrowly tailored, it must be the least restrictive means
available to achieve the governmental interest. See Kachalsky, 701 F.3d at 97.
29
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
Because the SMC bans the carrying of all fixed-blade knives by any person in the
City, it is too broad to withstand strict scrutiny. The SMC has minimal exceptions,
none of which allow carrying a fixed-blade knife for the constitutionally protected
right of self-defense. The SMC equates carrying a fixed-blade knife for self-defense
with unlawful activity, an outcome that is impermissible provided that the knife is a
protected arm. The City's regulatory scheme also fails to provide a permit option to
carry fixed-blade knives. Moreover, the SMC is underinclusive. The SMC allows
for the carrying of firearms, which are potentially more of a threat to public safety
than knives. See United States v. Skoien, 614 F.3d 638, 642 (7th Cir. 2010) (noting
that firearms are about five times more deadly than knives). The SMC's distinction
between fixed-blade and folding knives also lacks logical consistency. See Kopel,
supra, at 173 (dispelling the "misguided assumption that a fixed-blade knife is a
weapon whereas a folding knife is just a tool"). Therefore, the SMC is not narrowly
tailored to achieve the City's compelling purpose.
I would hold that the SMC, as applied to Evans-a law-abiding citizen
possessing a fixed-blade knife for self-defense-is presumptively unconstitutional
under the Second Amendment. I would hold that a fixed-blade knife is an arm under
the Second Amendment and that the Second Amendment's protections extend
beyond the home. Alternatively, I would hold that in similar factual scenarios to
Evans', the SMC fails under strict scrutiny because it places too severe of a burden
30
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
on one's Second Amendment right to bear arms. Evans' appeal is controlled by his
federal challenge. Given that the Second Amendment provides greater protection,
this court must reevaluate its holding in Montana, and that decision should be
abrogated.
I also note that this decision would not prohibit or deter the regulation of
knives or other arms. As the Heller Court explained, the Second Amendment right
is not absolute. Here, however, the SMC's restriction on fixed-blade knives is too
broad and too harsh. Additionally, strict scrutiny should not be applied to every law
that implicates the Second Amendment. A court analyzing such laws must go
through the analytical approach described above to determine what level of scrutiny
is appropriate.
I respectfully dissent.
31
City of Seattle v. Evans, No. 90608-4
Fairhurst, J. (dissenting)
~hAM:t+·9·
32